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Native Shoe 




Still in Existence 



Volume VI 
Goodrich Employees Reading Course 

FOR 

Earth, Sea and 
Sky 



A STORY of the DEVELOPMENT 
MANUFACTURE and USES of 

Rubber Footwear and 
Rubberized Fabrics 




Written In 
The Sales Personnel Dept., Training Division 

OF 

The B. F. Goodrich Rubber Co. 

Akron, Ohio 

1920 



<^& 



V/6 



Copyrighted 
by 

The B. F. Goodrich Rubber Co, 
19 2 



m "8 1920 



©CI.A566409 



Preface 



i:^ 



SINGE its inception, over three hundred years ago, 
the idea that caoutchouc (rubber) could be manu- 
factured into numerous articles useful to the health, 
safety and comfort of mankind has had many cham- 
pions, who have been moved, through enthusiasm for 
their work, to record the results of research and study 
into its mysteries. In consequence many books have 
been pubhshed concerning those things which the lay 
public today classify under the general term "Rubber 
Goods." 

Very few writers on rubber have, however, treated 
the various products by classes, and fewer still have 
made the attempt to develop the story of each class as 
we have done in our endeavor to provide elementary 
instruction for those desiring to inform themselves in a 
general way. 

Rubber shoes and rubberized fabrics are the two first 
items which the white race adopted from the South 
American native and attempted to introduce into Europe. 
In this volume, which is the sixth in our series of seven, 
we have told the story of these two oldest classes of 
rubber products, from their inception until now. This 
involves briefly history, descriptions of the major steps 
in development, modern methods of manufacture, types 
and styles of product, and marketing methods. 

Naturally, there is a vast amount of historical anec- 
dote concerning the development of this line of merchan- 
dise, which we cannot afford to cover and which, in fact. 



would not add to the value of the book even were the 
information available without too much work. 

We have accordingly related merely enough of the 
historical to give the reader an appreciati on of the 
trials and difficulties which have been met and over- 
come by the successful manufacturer. It is the hope of 
this company that this book will inspire the whole 
organization with a well merited enthusiasm for these 
products. 



Table of Contents 



CHAPTER ONE 
A History of Footwear 

Origin 1 

Commercial Development of Footwear 4 

The Rubber Shoe 6 

Our First Practical Rubber Shoes 7 

Goodyear's Discovery 9 

First Practical Rubber Footwear 9 

Goodrich Enters the Rubber Footwear Field 11 

First Process Improvement 12 

Introduction of Hi-Press 14 

Goodrich Straight-Line Rubbers 15 

Summary 15 

CHAPTER TWO 
Manufacture of Rubber Footwear 

Production 17 

Lasts 18 

Footwear Fabrics 20 

Fabric Preparation 22 

Compounding 22 

Coloring 23 

Calendering 24 

Cutting 24 

AssembUng 26 

Building 26 

Curing 29 

Trimming and Inspecting 32 

Summary 32 



CHAPTER THREE 
A Shoe for Every Purpose — A Size for Every Foot 

A Well-Balanced Line 34 

The Hi-Press Brand 36 

The Straight-Line Brand 36 

Socks and Felt Boots 36 

Styles, Widths and Sizes 37 

CHAPTER FOUR 
Footwear Abuses and Care 

Service 39 

Heat and Light 39 

Storage 40 

Oil and Grease 42 

Improper Fitting 42 

Care Propaganda 43 

CHAPTER FIVE 
Footwear Marketing 

Sales Organization 44 

Methods of Distribution 44 

Sales Policy 45 

Guarantee and Adjustments 46 

Conclusion 49 

CHAPTER SIX 
History of Rubberizing 

Definition Of Waterproof 51 

Origin 53 

Commercial Development 54 

American Development 56 

War as a Stimulating Influence 57 

Goodrich 59 

CHAPTER SEVEN 
Rubberizing Materials and Processes 

Fabrics 61 

Compounds 65 



Rubberizing 66 

Doubling 72 

Vulcanization 74 

CHAPTER EIGHT 
Brass Tacks of Rubberizing 

The Product— Its Uses 77 

Motor Top and Curtain Fabrics 78 

Balloon Fabrics 80 

Rubberized Fabrics for Cloth and Leather Shoes 82 

Calendered Fabrics 84 

Mill Aprons 86 

Garment Fabrics 87 

Seat Covering Fabrics 88 

Quality Counts 89 

CHAPTER NINE 
Marketing Rubberized Fabrics 

Distribution 91 

The Trade 93 

Guarantee 93 

Care of Rubberized Fabrics 94 



CHAPTER ONE 

History of Footwear 

Origin, The story of the shoe goes back to the very 
beginning of written history. How much farther no one 
has been able to find out or even guess accurately. 
But, all through the ages since man began to record his 
thoughts, the shoe has been woven through song and 
story. 

Research among the ruins of ancient cities in Assyria, 
India, China, and Egypt has disclosed the fact that 
more than three thousand years ago, a process of tan- 
ning leather to make it less destructible and more 
phable was known to mankind and that shoes were 
manufactured of leather at least that many years ago. 

Archaeologic investigation has shown the probabihty of 
a highly developed civilization upon this continent, 
existent many thousand years ago, consisting of 
peoples among whom the arts and crafts were well 
advanced. Discoveries of pre-historic tombs, in which 
have been found remnants of statuary, fabrics and other 
materials, proves beyond doubt, that wood and cloth 
were used to protect and decorate the feet even long 
before men acquired written language or symbols. 

Naturally enough, primitive man utilized whatever 
suitable materials happened to be at hand for his pur- 
pose, constructing shoes along lines characteristic with 
his degree of intelligence and the demands made by soil 
or cHmatic conditions. Skins of animals, wood, grasses, 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

fibrous plant stems and the coagulated juice of certain 
trees were all made use of for this purpose by the various 
native peoples. 

Esparto grass, a fibrous plant which grows abundantly 
in Spain, has for centuries been a favorite shoe material 
in that section of the earth. Even yet in Iberia, por- 
tions of Spain and Portugal, shoes fabricated from this 
peculiar grass are extremely popular and it is said that 
when made from the toughest and longest fibre, 
will outwear many pairs of the best leather product. 

Columbus and those who followed him to the New 
Continent noted and made mention of the circumstance 
that "Indians" were fashioning rude boots by a process 
of coagulating the juice of certain trees over clay molds 
modeled from the human foot. Hypothesis, therefore, 
will at least permit us to assume that rubber boots were 
not unknown among the ancients of this Western Con- 
tinent. 

Rocks, thorns, cold and wet man has always contended 
with, and although it is true that many of the "ancients" 
dressed their feet as an indication of caste or purely for 
personal adornment reasons, the real incentive for a 
universal demand for footwear has always been the 
necessity for protection. 

Old customs linger. The long legged boot such as 
worn by our early pioneers remain with us long after 
the reasons for their use disappeared. Even today in 
certain sections of the United States, populated by 
people whose antecedents date from The Netherlands, 
the wooden sabot is worn "just because." Thus for 
reasons — practical and otherwise — old styles have re- 
mained in vogue, and taken the world over, shoes today 

2 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

are fashioned from many kinds of materials and are of 
many types. 

But, shoes as you and I know them made from leather, 
fabric or rubber, or any combination of these materials 
are of comparatively recent origin. Shoes which fit, 
which are made along scientific lines, which adorn the 
feet and at the same time meet all requirements of 
modern civilization, ranging from the light canvas 
sport shoe to the miner's heavy rubber boot, are the 
result of a process of elimination, adaptation, and growth 
which has practically all taken place within the last 
three quarters of a century. 

Since, in introducing this story we have signified that 
it is intended as an elementary text covering the subject 
of rubber footwear, our reason for digression at the 
very outset may not be apparent. We therefore 
turn aside momentarily to explain that it seems neces- 
sary to give a proper ground work to the study of rubber 
footwear that the reader should know something of the 
evolution of the shoe. 

This necessity naturally involves the study of leather 
foot coverings since the skins of animals have, 
from the beginning, been considered the most 
practical material from which to build boots and 
shoes. It should not, require such a tremendous 
stretch of imagination for us to come to the definite 
conclusion as to why, so early in history, leather re- 
commended itself as the ideal material for this purpose, 
and why the traffic in the skins of animals formed one 
of the principal mediums of exchange in the early com- 
merce of the world. 

When dried or otherwise prepared by a process of tan- 
ning, the skins of almost aU animals, and of some fish, 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

offer a tough wear-resisting, yet pliable material 
that easily conforms to the outline of the foot. 
From this material, shoes are constructed which afford 
an effective covering; warm, durable and at the same 
time comfortable. 

Man's natural tendency to accumulate and barter 
the things constituting tangible wealth prompted him 
to make use of this by-product of the hunt as his medium 
of exchange in the purchase of those things which 
were otherwise difficult to obtain. Thus the traffic 
in hides developed. That this practice was probably 
almost universally followed, even by those who in- 
habited what were considered the remote places of the 
earth, is shown by the fact that Europeans found the 
North American Indian trading with pelts as his stand- 
ard of values. 

Commercial Development of Footwear. The 
shoe itself, did not become an item of commerce until 
comparatively recent times. In fact, for many years 
shoes were made either by the consumer himself or by 
the itinerant "cobbler" who carried his tools from place 
to place, making up each customer's yearly requirements 
from the supply of leather always kept on hand in every 
household. History relates that the personnel of every 
king's or baronet's retinue required the undivided serv- 
ice of a shoemaker. 

The wandering cobbler stayed with us until about 
the beginning of the seventeenth century, but at this 
time a few skilled workmen in some of the larger cities, 
began to band themselves together working in teams, 
at benches, doing the "lasting" and the more difficult 
operations, "farming out" the rough work among the 
women of the neighborhood. This arrangement, we 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

are told, formed the nucleus of our present day shoe 
factory system. 

At least throughout the colonies of North America, 
particularly in and around Boston and Lynn, Massa- 
chusetts, from about 1635 up to the close of the Re- 
volutionary War a considerable commerce in these semi- 
factory made ready-to-wear boots and shoes developed. 
It is said that early in their history, Massachusetts 
shoes gained a reputation for quality and style rivaled 
by none, even the finest grades made abroad be- 
ing surpassed. All during this period the centralized 
factory idea was slowly developing and gaining in 
popularity. In the year 1700, a scale of standard sizes 
was universally adopted and it soon became not un- 
common to find the whole process, from the tanning of 
the hide to the building of the shoe, evolved under one 
roof. 

Although these changes were steps in development 
and the business improved and prospered, it was still 
carried on without further marked change in method 
until the introduction of machinery. Shoe manufacture 
both in America and abroad was, in the strictest sense, 
a hand trade. 

At the close of the struggle by which the American 
colonies gained their independence footwear manufac- 
turers of this country were found in a rather disorganized 
condition. In other words, through lack of suitable 
labor to compete with European countries, through 
lack of proper tariff laws and co-operation between the 
Colonies, American shoemaking suffered a relapse until 
about 1845 when Yankee mechanical genius began to 
interest itself in this trade and bring it to the 
forefront. 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

The pioneer invention was the roUing machine, a 
device for sohdifying and hardening sole leather. This 
was followed by the invention of the wax thread sewing 
machine for joining the various "upper" component 
parts. Both of these were "Made in America" machines 
and accordingly gave new impetus to the footwear 
business of this country. 

While other labor-saving devices soon followed which 
further improved the processes and fostered the industry, 
the true beginning of shoe manufacturing, where pro- 
duction was done on a large scale by many workmen 
under one roof, had its inception about the year 1860 
with the invention of the McKay Sewing Machine. 
Welting, Lasting, Heeling machines and many other 
apphances were soon after invented and first put into use 
by the manufacturers of the United States. These 
American innovations have made possible the produc- 
tion of leather footwear in large quantities, one company 
alone having reached long ago an output of seventy-five 
thousand pairs per day. Consequently it can be said 
that the great improvements leading up to the present 
high state of development have been created by the 
American manufacturer. 

The Rubber Shoe. Insofar as we can find out, 
the first mention of the substance now known as rubber, 
in connection with the manufacture of shoes was made 
by the Spanish explorer, Juan de Forquemada, in his 
book published in Madrid about 1615. Among other 
peculiar customs of the American native, he relates 
about their practice of constructing rude water-tight 
shoes by congealing the juices of certain trees over clay 
molds patterned after the wearer's own feet. 

6 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

Some years later, French scientists and explorers, mak- 
ing Geographic Surveys of South America under the aus- 
pices of the Paris Academy of Sciences, discovered in the 
course of their work more about this substance we know 
as rubber. They learned its name, characteristics, etc. 
— and along with their reports sent to France samples 
of the crude native shoes. These items were treated as 
"curios" and placed on exhibit in the museums of Paris. 

Whether or not the native adopted Caoutchouc as a 
footwear material because of its waterproof qualities 
is not known, but it is unlikely that he did. At least 
the most logical conclusion would be that his shoes 
were made from rubber because of its abundance and 
availability or because this latex was more easily 
gathered and prepared than the skins of animals. We 
have every reason to believe however, that this peculiar 
material had probably been employed in the man- 
ufacture of shoes for many centuries prior to the dis- 
coveries of Columbus. 

It has been remarked many times that rubber shoes 
when first discovered by the Europeans were crudely 
decorated with caricatures of birds and reptiles, and 
that these drawings correspond to those since found on 
stones among the ancient ruins of South America. Even 
now these primitive decorations are in vogue, and al- 
though this circumstance may not positively prove the 
origin of the rubber shoe, it is reasonable to presume 
that its use dates back almost to the beginning of the 
first occupation of the South American continent. 

Our First Practical Rubber Shoes. Native rub- 
ber shoes continued to be regarded as curiosities for 
almost four centuries after their discovery, and it was 
not until about 1813 that the value of rubber as a 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

waterproof shoe material was given public recognition. 
As the story goes, a Boston sea captain brought with 
him on a return voyage from the Amazon district five 
hundred pairs of native "gum boots" which, although 
clumsy and unshapely, readily sold at $5.00 per pair. 

As a protection against wet feet, it was promptly con- 
ceded that rubber was much superior to greased leather 
and it has been estimated that during a period of fifteen 
years, beginning with 1825, one million pairs of these 
rudely constructed shoes were imported from South 
America and found a ready market. 

It was, however, the high price together with the 
fact that "gum boots" from South America were con- 
sidered a luxury that maintained their popularity for 
so long. From a service standpoint they were not, as 
may be imagined, satisfactory; a contention substanti- 
ated by the fact that after a process had been perfected 
permitting their production on a leirge scale and sale 
at a reasonable figure, the public did not want "rubbers" 
at any price. The cause of this condition was a dis- 
covery made about 1831, involving the preparation 
of a varnish from lampblack, rubber and spirits of 
turpentine, in which latter ingredient it was found that 
rubber would dissolve. 

The application of this mixture to fabric produced 
a material with a glossy water-impervious surface which 
was supposed would, among other things, prove suitable 
for the manufacture of waterproof footwear and great 
expectations were entertained for its industrial develop- 
ment. But the exponents of this process had failed to 
take into consideration the peculiar characteristics 
of their basic ingredient, i. e. its tendency to soften 
and stick in warm temperature and to become hard 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

and brittle in the cold. It has been suggested that 
the owner of a pair of these first factory produced 
rubber shoes was very likely to find them rooted 
firmly to the floor, should he perchance place them near 
a hot stove to dry. 

No means up to this time had been discovered to 
overcome this annoying characteristic of rubber, i, e., 
its inherent stickiness. For this reason, The Roxbury 
India Rubber Co. which had been chartered in 1831 
to manufacture footwear and clothing under 
this patent, failed. The rubber shoe was for the time 
accordingly relegated to the industrial discard as 
a bad venture and forgotten by the public. 

Goodyear's Discovery. Despite the repeated fail- 
ures of rubber articles to give satisfaction, there were 
still some who believed in the possibilities of a bright 
future for this substance, providing some means could 
be found to overcome the bothersome viscosity. Ex- 
periments were made with this end in view, and a few 
remarkable results were reached which at least ap- 
proached the desired end. 

One of those who had an unflagging interest in rubber 
was a man about whom so much has been written that 
it seems useless for us to more than merely mention 
his name. Charles Goodyear, — for it was he — probably 
had a more firmly rooted belief in his chosen fife work 
than did his contemporaries, or perhaps more of that 
quahty of tenacity of purpose; for, where others failed, 
he succeeded, eventuaUy discovering that fundamental 
in rubber manufacture which has made his name famous 
the world over— VULCANIZATION. 

First Practical Rubber Footwear. Leverett Candee, 
founder of the firm of L. Candee & Company, procured 

9 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

the jBrst license for the manufacture of vulcanized foot- 
wear under the Goodyear patent and immediately 
opened a factory in New Haven, Connecticut, (1844). 
The establishment of this company, which has to this day 
remained an important factor in the rubber shoe in- 
dustry, marked the beginning of what has proven to be 
one of the greatest industrial enterprises of the nation. 
In fact, footwear is one branch of the rubber industry 
which has ever since enjoyed a place in the front ranks 
of rubber goods production. 

Mr. Candee's first attempt to market these "Vulcan- 
ized Rubbers" was very interesting, but albeit rather 
expensive to him; for — owing to the unfortunate ex- 
perience of the public with earlier rubber products — 
those made before the Goodyear discovery — the whole 
business had come into such ill repute that it proved 
extremely difficult to interest the hard-headed Yankee. 

As a result, the Gandee salesman who started out 
through New England with his rubber shoes found a 
great many who were even disinclined to give them 
inspection. And so, in order to secure a market, he 
found it necessary to give away a great many intro- 
ductory pairs. It was not, however, necessary to do 
this a second season, for it was soon discovered that 
the new product was entirely different from the footwear 
of a few years before. 

Within the next few months after his discovery be- 
came known, Goodyear issued similar licenses to Ford 
& Co. of New Brunswick, New Jersey (which later 
became the Meyer Rubber Co.) ; to the New Brunswick 
Rubber Co. of the same place, and to Goodyear's 
Metallic Rubber Shoe Go. of Naugatuck, Connecticut. 
These licenses also included rubber boots, though this 

10 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

type of footwear did not appear on the market until 
several years later. 

The success of the rubber shoe being thus assured, 
and the demand increasing rapidly, others were attracted 
to this field and soon there were a dozen or more fac- 
tories turning out a fairly good line of merchandise. 
For a number of years thereafter the rubber shoe in- 
dustry utihzed the bulk of the crude imported to this 
country and the rapid rise of this product to popularity 
was truly wonderful. Statistics show that the increase 
in sales from 1860 to 1900 was more than four thousand 
per cent. 

Although the development of mechanical rubber goods 
and later automobile tires invaded the field to such 
an extent that the shoe industry no longer consumes 
the same proportion of the basic raw material as for- 
merly, the shoe business is, nevertheless, still one of the 
most important branches of rubber goods manufacture. 

Goodrich Enters the Rubber Footwear Field. 

The attractive possibihties of the rubber footwear busi- 
ness had long been recognized by the officers of The B. 
F. Goodrich Company; and as early as 1898 they were 
giving serious consideration to the addition of this 
product to our rapidly increasing list of Quality Goods. 
The final arrangements for the manufacture of boots 
and shoes were not, however, made until about 1905. 

During this year a practical and experienced rubber 
shoe man was engaged to assume the responsibility of 
this new department, and we decided to enter the market 
with a complete line of heavy and light weight wear 
which would be recognized as second in quality to none 
and truly representative of Goodrich principles. 

11 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

The Mishawaka Woolen Manufacturing Go. of Misha- 
waka, Indiana, makers of the "Ball-Band" line of rubber 
footwear, then one of the most prominent concerns 
among rubber shoe manufacturers, hearing of our de- 
cision offered to contract with us for all the light weight 
rubbers we could produce. Inasmuch as we had up 
to this time no sales experience in this line, it was 
deemed advisable to accept their proposal. Accordingly, 
the Akron Rubber Shoe Go. was organized with the 
stock equally divided between ourselves and the Misha- 
waka Gompany. 

We immediately began under this Arrangement the 
manufacture of "Straight-Line" rubber footwear, the 
first sales being made in January, 1906. Under our 
agreement we were not privileged to produce and offer 
for sale, light weight rubber footwear under the Good- 
rich or any other name, an arrangement which worked 
to our mutual advantage for a number of years. So 
much so in fact that we confined our output to the 
"Straight-Line" brand, making no effort to put out a 
line of heavy wear. 

But about 1910, however, the Diamond Rubber Go. 
then a competing corporation, came out with a complete 
line of heavy and light rubber footwear, tennis shoes, 
etc., and we, of course, inherited this business at the 
time of the consolidation in 1912. This date really 
marks the beginning of our footwear selling efforts. 

First Process Improvement. The rubber foot- 
wear business of this country grew rapidly and to enor- 
mous proportions from its inception in 1844 and various 
small factories were combined to facilitate the buying 
of raw materials. As a result, this rubber product de- 
clined considerably in price during this period and the 

12 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

buying public was receiving, in most cases at least, 
value for their money, insofar as the honest manufacturer 
was able to deliver quality. 

It is also true that the art of compounding had 
developed to a point where stocks entering the make-up 
of rubber shoes were unquestionably superior to those 
turned out in the beginning. Nevertheless, no im- 
portant improvement in methods of manufacture or 
quaUty had been made for fifty years up to 1913, and 
the same methods of building and curing were in vogue 
in 1912 as had been employed for many years previous. 

The process, explained in a later chapter of this book , 
known as the "dry heat" method of cure, did not correct 
errors made by builders nor serve to eliminate the occa- 
sional air pockets from between the plies. Neither was 
the natural porosity of the stock materially lessened 
during the dry heat cure. Consequently the "life" 
of heavy rubbers or boots was sometimes an uncertainty 
and the service they might be expected to deliver could 
not always be gauged. 

For several years we had realized this weakness in 
methods and had constantly experimented with the 
idea in mind that eventually we could evolve a new 
process whereby all the objectionable faults in manufac- 
ture could be eliminated. Almost immediately after 
the consohdation of the Goodrich-Diamond factories, 
we began the development of the Diamond brand line 
with this aim in view. 

Such numbers of their line as were thought inadvisa- 
ble to be continued were eliminated at that time, thus 
allowing us to center manufacturing efforts on what we 
considered to be the more important items necessary for a 

13 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

well balanced line of strictly waterproof long wearing 
boots and shoes. 

In October, 1913, we announced to the trade through 
advertising, catalogues, and representatives, an entirely 
new departure from the old methods as used in the man- 
ufacture of the ordinary black rubber boot and shoe. 
The introduction a few weeks later, of the Diamond 
White Brand and Tobacco lines both of which were 
made by this improved process brought forth an ava- 
lanche of criticism from our competitors in which it 
was claimed that our new colored preduct was nothing 
but a fad and would not endure against the competition 
of the old-fashioned black rubber. Happily, however, 
it has since been proved that our critics were mistaken 
and that this new product was the harbinger of a line 
which has since revolutionized the rubber footwear 
industry — The Hi-press. 

Introduction of Hi-press. As stated, no impor- 
tant changes in the manufacturing processes of rubber 
footwear had been made for fifty years prior to this date. 
When the "big" improvement was made by a concern 
considered as an infant in the rubber footwear business — 
Goodrich — it came with such lightning-like suddenness 
and was so revolutionary in character that at first it 
was treated by the old time footwear manufacturer 
with indifference. When, however, our Hi-press product 
began to outwear from two to ten pairs of boots made 
the old way, this unconcern turned to recognition and 
our leadership in the field of rubber footwear was 
estabhshed. 

The Hi-press line, offered to the trade in January, 
1914, which replaced both the Diamond White and 
Tabasco lines embraces those styles which come under 

14 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

the classification of "heavy goods." White and brown 
as well as black numbers are furnished and colored 
boots have become 'more than popular; in fact, 
the standard by which all others are judged. As it 
turned out, brown and white boots are not merely a 
fad but, on the contrary, represent one of the great 
steps in advance that come periodically in all of the 
arts and crafts. 

So quickly has the public recognized this, that manu- 
facturers of rubber footwear everywhere are imitating 
the Goodrich product and are turning out brown and 
white wear which they represent to the trade as being 
identical in all ways. 

Goodrich Straight- Line Rubbers. Our contract 
with the Mishawaka Woolen Manufacturing Company 
which terminated January, 1916, was not renewed. We 
then took over the marketing of our Straight-Line 
footwear which had already established a reputation 
for quality in 99 out of every 100 towns north of 
the Mason-Dixon line and from coast to coast. More- 
over, since we owned the rights to the Straight-Line 
trade mark, we had but to announce to the trade our 
intention of marketing this line direct to secure from 
the very start as much light weight business as we could 
handle. 

Summary. These successive steps in the evolution 
of Goodrich rubber footwear have established in the 
minds of the pubhc the name "Hi-press" as typifying the 
acme of perfection in heavy wear, and the name "Straight- 
Line" as signifying the hght weight wear occupying the 
highest pinnacle of quahty possible for such goods. 

15 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

The Diamond brands were gradually closed out, as 
was the Tabasco brand, so that today Goodrich rubber 
footwear consists of but the two divisions, Straight- 
Line and Hi-press. 

This is a quality line throughout, first, last and all the 
time, and comprises an assortment of numbers that is 
stronger, more nearly complete and more satisfactory 
to sell than any similar line produced. 




IG 



CHAPTER TWO 

Manufacture of Rubber Footwear 

Production. In the preparation of raw materials 
up to the point where the various component parts of 
the rubber shoe are actually put together, considerable 
machinery is employed; which is to say that nearly all 
so-called "preUminary" steps are accomplished by me- 
chanical means and can be classified as "machine proc- 
esses." The devices used are, however, ordinarily nothing 
more than modified standard rubber working machines 
adapted to the peculiarities of footwear construction. In 
truth, the preliminary steps in rubber shoe manufacture 
are fundamentally the same as those taken in the 
preparation of stocks for all classes of rubber goods. 

On account of the nature of rubber, sewing machines 
and many other mechanical devices which for years 
have been taken for granted in the leather shoe trade 
are not of practical value in actual rubber shoe con- 
struction. The manufacture of rubber boots and 
shoes as carried on today is, therefore, in the 
strictest sense, not a machine process and those who 
are employed for the "building" operations, that is, 
in assembling the various component parts, are for 
the most part hand artisans. This is a condition which 
at the very outset creates a serious problem in that 
rubber shoemakers cannot be trained in a few days. 

It is, however, being recognized more widely every 
day that the machine must supplement the human in all 
fields ; if production is to keep pace with the growing de- 

17 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

mand for more and better articles of all kinds at a uniform- 
ly minimum price. Therefore, just as automatic machin- 
ery has been gradually adopted in the production of 
other articles, it is only logical to assume that even- 
tually machines will supplant the present hand labor in 
the building of rubber footwear. 

Lasts. "A wooden form approximately resembling 
the human foot, over which a shoe may be shaped," is the 
standard definition of the word "last." This, however, 
is not entirely correct, in the rubber footwear field, 
since here "lasts" made from metals are used to a great 
extent. 

Why wood "lasts" are used exclusively in the leather 
shoe industry will be obvious when one knows that 
during certain steps in the "lasting" of the shoe, 
the upper must be tacked securely in place. But why 
both wood and metal "lasts" are used in building rubber 
footwear may not be clear. For this reason we deem it 
wise to explain, rather carefully, this feature of the 
rubber shoe business. 

So-called light weight rubber footwear is that which 
is worn in conjunction with the leather shoe and there- 
fore, must necessarily conform in shapes to prevailing 
leather shoe styles. Because these styles are almost 
constantly changing, especially in the finer grades of 
men's and women's shoes, rubber shoe manufacturers are 
frequently forced to procure a new complement of 
"lasts" for the manufacture of light weight wear. 

Naturally, metal under this condition would be too 
costly to be practical, since only one or two seasons' 
use could be derived from the "last" before it would be 
out of style and therefore, fit only for the scrap heap. 
Thus in the construction of the so termed fight weight 

18 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

wear it has been found more in keeping with good factory 
practice to use wooden "lasts." Accordingly except for 
certain styles known as staples, always found in any com- 
plete line of this kind, wooden "lasts" are invariably used. 

In the heavy rubber footwear field, which embraces 
such things as miners' boots, each manufacturer has, 
on the other hand, an opportunity to develop styles in 
accordance with his own ideas of what constitutes scien- 
tific shapes for boots and shoes of this character. Thus 
his own "last" becomes a permanent style insofar as he 
is concerned, and can be used indefinitely until worn out. 

Then too, the use of metal for this purpose, especially 
in the Goodrich factories, is not only economical but 
necessary because of its better adaptability to the curing 
process employed by us in the manufacture of our heavy 
weight line. Any one of several metals can be used. 
But, because of the advantages of great strength, light- 
ness, and extreme ductility, aluminum seems to be ideal 
for rubber footwear "lasts" and is, therefore, made use 
of to the greatest extent. 

The "last" proposition is, however, one of much 
greater importance than might be imagined by the 
casual observer. It is, in fact, a question upon which 
the success of any such line may depend entirely. 

As mentioned, "lasts" for light weight wear must be 
in harmony with existing styles in leather shoes or the 
line is a failure. Likewise, in designing "lasts" for 
heavy wear, it is important that they be made to con- 
form to comfortable and healthful lines only possible 
when a knowledge of the anatomy of the human foot 
is possessed. 

Nor is a knowledge of styles all that is necessary. 
Any up-to-date factory must have a full comple- 

19 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

ment of "lasts" in the various sizes and styles 
and these must be so handled that shoes of a different 
character but like shapes may utilize the same "lasts." 
In one light weight women's style we may have seven 
shapes, three widths to each shape and fourteen sizes, 
1 to 8 in. each. This would make in all 294 lasts, even 
if we had only one of each size and shape. And when 
we come to consider the number actually necessary for 
volume production and the scores of styles in vogue, do 
we begin to get an inkling of the extent of the necessary 
equipment. These are the things we have in mind in 
mentioning that this whole problem is one of the most 
difficult in the rubber footwear business. 

Footwear Fabrics. The subject of footwear fabrics 
is one about which a great deal of more or less 
valuable matter might be written. There are, however, 
so many phases to the fabric situation, and so many 
changes being made necessary from time to time, that 
an attempt to cover the subject would be but a waste 
of time. Such information would, in fact, soon be out 
of date. 

There are, however, certain fundamental facts 
concerning selection and preparation of fabrics as used 
in the manufacture of rubber footwear regarding which 
a general knowledge is necessary for a proper under- 
standing of the rubber shoe business and without which 
no one could intelligently handle a discussion of quality 
and values. 

After investigation we find that the primary use of 
fabric in rubber shoe construction was to give strength 
and more permanent shape to the finished article. Now, 
however, fabrics are employed in the construction of 
certain kinds of rubber footwear for other reasons. 

20 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

For example, a woolly cotton known as "fleece lining" is 
used to make certain boots and rubbers more frost- 
proof, and a covering of heavy black cotton known as 
"cashmerette" is used on certain semi-dress rubbers 
for the same reason. Again, corduroy is used in the tops 
of lumbermen's heavy winter shoes because of its 
warmth and flexibility, and we are all famiUar with the 
"Jersey" used in the type of overshoe known as 
"Goloshes," "Arctics," or "Gaiters," much worn by 
everyone in the lands of deep snows. 

Another one, a felt-like fabric termed by the trade as 
"wool lining" has been much used as an inner facing or 
lining for fishermen's and lumbermen's shoes while "net 
lining" is a cotton fabric used extensively in the manu- 
facture of rubber footwear, especially in the lighter weight 
lines. The latter is a loosely woven material exceedingly 
strong, which, because of this strength, and because 
it takes and holds compounds well, it is much in demand. 
We find net lining desirable for use in sport boots. 

"Duck" is a strong cotton material used as a lining 
or reinforcing in the heavier classes of rubber footwear, 
though the term itself has been used as a "Catch" 
advertising word to denote extra strength in some 
particular. In other words, "duck vamp" means a 
boot with an extra ply of canvas around the vamp. 
Friction or Fusion lining also refers to a cotton fabric 
of this kind and for this same purpose. 

Naturally, we select boot and shoe fabrics primarily 
with their several and peculiar service requirements in 
mind. But, we must use care in this particular to 
purchase only such as will successfully undergo the 
rubberizing processes. By this we mean that in textile 
finishing certain minerals used in our compound when 

21 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

mixed with these foreign substances would bring about 
a result detrimental to the serviceability of the shoe. 
Likewise, care must be exercised to select fabric in which 
dyes — where colored cloth is used — will not be subject 
to chemical reaction from the rubberizing process. 

From this brief description it will be evident that the 
selection of fabrics is in itself an exceedingly important 
phase of rubber footwear manufacture, and one in 
which there are many chances to blunder without the 
safeguard of a rigid system of specification and inspec- 
tion such as used by the Goodrich Company. 

Fabric Preparation. Some fabrics must be frictioned 
on two sides, some only on one, some receive a skim 
coating while others do not, the steps taken depending, 
of course, upon the use to which the fabric is put. To 
apply the rubber compounds calenders are utilized as 
are also spreading machines, the selection of the machin- 
ery depending upon the nature of the fabric to be run. 
This is to say that if the material be firm and fairly 
closely woven, a calender can be used, whereas if loosely 
fabricated and liable to run crookedly between the 
calender rolls, a spreader must be employed. 

In all instances, however, the frictioned or frictioned 
and coated stock is delivered to the cutting department 
in its green or uncured state. If particularly sticky or 
"tacky" a "liner" or muslin strip is wound into the roll 
during the rubberizing. 

Compounding. The mixing and milling of rubber, 
minerals and other materials into compounds for rubber 
shoe construction is carried on in hke manner and by 
the identical machinery used for the same steps during 
the manufacture of other rubber goods. Therefore, 

22 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

because these processes have been explained in the 
first volume of this series, we will touch only upon such 
points as are pecuhar to rubber footwear. 

As previously mentioned, to The B. F. Goodrich Com- 
pany belongs the honor of having made the great im- 
provement in methods of rubber footwear manufacture. 
To this we may add that this new and improved prod- 
uct of ours involves not only methods but materials 
as well. It is our "Hi-press" method of vulcanization 
explained later in this chapter, which makes possible 
the employment of better materials than could formerly 
be used. In other words, by the old curing methods 
the limits of quality were soon reached, whereas by the 
new process, quality limit depends only upon the grades 
of rubber obtainable and the compounder's ability to 
improve upon the raw product by mixing with it such 
ingredients as will impart a more lasting and stronger 
fibre. 

Coloring. Color in rubber is no criterion of quality. 
Any good rubber chemist can formulate a compound in 
almost any color he may desire, but color that is the result 
of ingredients mixed with the raw rubber to improve its 
quaUty is another feature and one much harder to 
imitate successfully. While we do not wish to go on 
record as claiming that no one else will ever do it, the 
fact remains that we are the first on the ground with a 
colored boot of long wearing quality, and it will probably 
be some time before others attain the same degree of 
perfection as exemplified by our "Quality line." 
|I Coloring ingredients may, however, be justifiably 
placed in rubber shoe compounds for purely psychologi- 
cal reasons, or they may be used for the purpose of 
making light rubbers match the leather shoe as is done for 

23 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

ladies' white kid and other light colored footwear. We 
surely will be the last to deny the truth of this state- 
ment; but in any event, our readers may feel safe in 
assuming that all rubber footwear whether black, brown 
or white, need not necessarily be of Goodrich quality 
and that the test of service alone will tell. 

Calendering. Some footwear stocks are calendered 
on standard machines in the usual way and come from 
between the rolls in a long sheet. This sheeted stock 
may be wound onto a shell into a muslin liner or cut 
to convenient lengths and interleaved with "books" or 
placed on trays. 

A considerable portion of the footwear stock is, how- 
ever, sheeted on a special calender which in addition 
to reducing the compound to specified thickness and 
width, imprints the sheet with some design by means 
of a revolving dye somewhat resembling the paper mill 
"dandy roll." The pattern may be the knurled non- 
skid effect noted on the bottom of the sole or it may be 
an outUne of some component part stamped there merely 
as a guide for the cutters. These calenders sometimes 
even cut the stock to the desired shapes. 

Cutting. We may logically consider everything 
before this step as preliminary to actual construction 
and that the steps differed but little from the prep- 
aration of raw materials in the manufacture of other 
rubber goods whether belting, hot water bottles, tires 
or what not. After leaving the calender, however, 
stocks for footwear commence to take the form of the 
various component parts and thus we may say that 
cutting is the first actual step in construction. 

This operation is accomplished in various ways depend- 
ing upon the nature of the material, but, because of the 

24 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

extreme viscosity of some stocks, particularly those 
which form the outside surface of some types, machinery 
cannot be used to the greatest extent. This work, 
therefore, must be done by hand and for this purpose 
skilled cutters are employed. 

These artisans work at tables using sharp knives 
which they wield with a pecuharly dexterous wrist 
motion, enabling them to turn out an enormous amount 
of work without undue fatigue. 

Stocks upon which no outUne has been imprinted dur- 
ing the calendering process, such as those used in 
soles, are shaped into the various component parts 
for which they are intended by the use of metal templets 
around the edge of which the workman follows with his 
knife. In cutting out soles "rights" and "lefts" of the 
same size are made from the same pattern by the simple 
expedient of reversing it alternately. The opposites 
thus cut follow each other through the various steps 
usually finally appearing upon the same pair of com- 
pleted shoes. 

It will be recognized that where the raw stocks 
whether fabric or compound, are of such a character 
or consistency that machinery can be employed effective- 
ly, a great opportunity for saving in manufacturing costs 
presents itself, since naturally machine cutting is much 
more rapid and usually more accurate. Therefore, we 
wiU mention that in such instances as we have found 
mechanical cutting to be the practical plan, dies have 
been made and are used, these being attached to auto- 
matic machines. 

Further improvement in cutting methods will doubt- 
less suggest itself or be thought out by our expert proc- 
ess-experimental men from time to time. This fea- 

25 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

ture need not, however, concern greatly those seeking 
fundamental knowledge; for such changes as will be 
made while not necessarily minor ones will not individ- 
ually aflfect our consideration of the finished product. 

Assembling. All component parts necessary to 
complete a run of sizes of a given style are assembled 
as soon as cut. Assembling here merely means brought 
together from the various divisions of the department 
into the bins of a central stock distributing station, 
where each lot is carefully checked and sorted by size. 
Great care is taken in this work to keep all parts of a 
size in systematic arrangement according to stages of 
the building process and to see that each is properly 
marked with the lot number, width and size. 

We have found that this plan greatly facilitates the 
manufacture, for it enables the shop foremen to keep 
accurate tab on orders in process and prevents the floor 
of the making room from becoming cluttered with stock 
trucks. 

Building. As emphasized previously, the actual 
making of rubber footwear is as yet essentially a hand 
process accomplished by expert workers who acquire 
their skill through serving an apprenticeship the same 
as artisans in other crafts are obliged to do. Although 
to become an expert in rubber footwear making does 
not require as long an apprenticeship as it does to become 
proficient in some of the trades, the principle of pro- 
bation is the same, and all new members of the organi- 
zation are required to work in the beginners' class under 
careful instructions until they are thoroughly com- 
petent. 

26 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

All work in the manufacturing department is' 'portioned' ' 
out and the necessary stocks issued to the workers 
at intervals as required by them. Each lot must be 
completed before others are started and thus the work 
is cleaned up so we proceed, no delays occurring to 
interrupt the continuity of the process during any 
particular run. 

It is neither our purpose to describe here factory prac- 
tice in detail nor to attempt a discussion of manufactur- 
ing theories. But the merits of the team work have been 
so long and loudly extolled by production engineers as 
the scheme par excellence in modern manufacture and 
so much has been written and said concerning this 
plan that when reading about production of rubber 
shoes or while paying a visit to the factory, one would 
quite naturally inquire into this phase of rubber shoe 
making. 

By way of anticipation, therefore, let us mention 
that we, are followers of this system. In many depart- 
ments where machine labor is the rule, we believe it to 
be the ideal scheme and even in places where hand work 
prevails, the team work system is very often found to 
be the economical practice. Further than this brief 
statement, we need not discuss this question, but our 
readers may feel assured that wherever feasible and 
practicable, this plan is the accepted regime in rubber 
footwear manufacturing. 

Before the various component parts of the rubber 
boot or shoe are joined together over the last, certain 
preparation must be made by the workmen to insure 
a quick and positive adhesion at the seams and between 
the pUes. This involves the "roughing" and cementing 

27 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

of the edges of the hnings and fabric reinforcing pieces 
and the softening of the edges of the gum pieces by the 
use '■ of some solvent. This treatment is commonly 
known as "stock preparation." 

Leg Lining, Toe Lining, Insole, Toe Piping, Half 
Vamp, Front Stay, Counter and Rag Sole are the 
technical names given the various pieces just referred 
to while the gum reinforcement strips used on all of 
these are known as the Skipper, Spike and Ankle pieces. 

After the solvent has evaporated from the cements, the 
actual construction of the shoe commences by the 
application of the Leg Lining to the last. This lining, 
which is applied friction side out, may be considered 
as the basis of the shoe. Other parts are placed in 
position over one of these now covered "lasts," one or 
more pieces at a time in the order enumerated in the pre- 
ceding paragraph, until the workman has his racks entirely 
filled with what he terms "half lasted" shoes, which 
means shoes that are considered as one half made. 

As rapidly as the "half lasting" is finished, the outer 
surface of each shoe is thoroughly coated with cement 
and returned to the rack. Here it remains for about 
twenty minutes, or until the solvent has evaporated 
and the cement reaches that consistency where it comes 
away in strings if touched with the finger. 

The calendered stocks which go to make up the outer 
surface of the shoe or boot are then appUed and "stitched" 
down carefully, great care being taken to see that no 
air bubbles remain between the outer and inner plies 
of stock. This operation, termed "Stitching" is, of 
course, accomplished without the use of thread, the 
natural viscosity of the stock sufficing to hold the 
various pieces into place until they become one by cure. 

28 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

The outside layer of the rubber shoe just mentioned 
may be sheeted rubber stock or a fabric coated with 
a compound, but in either case it is composed of vari- 
ously shaped pieces the same as are the lining stocks. 

Each part is designated by some name, the most 
important ones of which will be recognized as words 
adopted from the leather shoe trade. These are the 
"Snag Vamp" which fits over the toe; "Filler" stock 
used in the sole; "Leg Cover" which forms the top of a 
boot and "Vamp Stock" employed in the lower part 
of the upper. 

The now (nearly) completed shoes are transferred, 
"lasts" and all, to a portable rack and are promptly 
transported by trucks directly to the curing apparatus. 
But before the cure commences, all light weight wear 
and some of the heavy is immersed by automatic 
machinery into a tank of varnish which imparts to 
the completed article the glossy finish always seen on all 
black overshoes when new from the store. 

Curing. The first real practical application of 
Goodyear's vulcanizing process to the manufacture of 
rubber footwear came about with the invention of the 
thermostatic recorder, which made it possible for the 
management of the rubber shoe factory to at least 
make the best use of the equipment at hand and to 
know that at all times his oven temperature was kept 
at the proper degree. 

Prior to the adoption of this automatic device ordinary 
thermometers attached in either end of the oven and 
read through a thick glass window in the wall con- 
stituted the only means available for taking the tem- 
perature. Perhaps the man operating the vulcanizer 
read and recorded accurately, perhaps not; perhaps 

29 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

he opened or closed the valves at the proper times, 
perhaps not. In other words, there was no way of 
checking him up, and . consequently a great deal of 
uncertainty existed as to uniformity of cure. 

Quality then could not be assured to any purchaser 
of rubber footwear and this condition considerably re- 
tarded the growth of the industry. When, however, 
the curing process became a known factor through the 
use of the thermostatic recorder, and all uncertainty 
passed away, the manufacturer was able to guarantee 
his product to be uniformly cured. This immediately 
established the rubber footwear business on a still more 
substantial basis. 

No further improvements were however inaugurated 
in this method of vulcanization^ — known as the Dry 
Heat Process — and while effective insofar as the actual 
cure is concerned and suitable for the manufacture of 
hght weight rubbers not required to resist any great 
abrasion, it was impossible to turn out a truly serviceable 
rubber boot for rough use. 

The reason for this is, as mentioned once before, that 
possibilities for increasing the quahty of stock under the 
"Dry Heat" method were definitely limited. Should 
the manufacturer attempt to exceed these limits, 
the boot would not cure but would come out soft and 
worthless. 

By the high pressure mechanical method as worked 
out and put into practice about 1913 by the Good- 
rich Company, we can, however, make use of the 
rubber chemists' highest accomplishment in the art of 
improving rubber compounds. An exemplification of 
this fact is seen in our Hi-press line in which we have 
gone the limit of known quality and are using in the 

30 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

soles of these boots and heavy shoes a stock similar 
to that in the treads of our automobile tires, another 
place where quahty must prevail, as is well known. 

There are other advantages gained through the use of 
the Goodrich Mechanical Curing Process no less impor- 
tant than our ability to utilize the highest quality stock. 
For example, the time required to complete the opera- 
tion by the Dry Heat Process is several hours, whereas, 
by the Hi-press method the maximum time required 
is one hour, including the time consumed in loading and 
unloading the vulcanizer. Further than this, the pressure 
exerted by the special appliances serves to knit the 
molecules of rubber more closely together, thereby 
materially increasing the serviceability of the completed 
article. 

When the product has assumed its permanent shape 
and the compounds have reached a proper consistency, 
the cure is said to be complete. Light weight goods 
must, however, be permitted to cool before removed 
from the "lasts," a precaution taken to prevent the shoe 
from shrinking below its intended size as it might if 
removed too soon. 

While this may retard somewhat the speed of pro- 
duction, it is worth the cost and prevents the possibility 
of the product being undersize. Heavy weight goods 
may be removed from the lasts as soon as the cure is 
complete. 

In either case, however, lasts are pulled from the 
shoe or boot much the same as one would remove his 
foot from such an article. Naturally, however, the 
workmen who perform this operation are assisted by 
mechanical appliances, thus making it possible to part 
the one from the other with a minimum of effort and time. 

31 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

Trimming and Inspecting. Certain rough edges 
which correspond in a way to the rind always seen on 
castings just out of the mold are always in evidence on 
the rubber shoe as it comes from the cure. These, of 
course, must be trimmed off before the product is ready 
to market. 

More important than this, however, is the next and 
final step before boxing which consists of a thorough 
inspection of each pair. Depending upon the reader's 
assumption that this obviously necessary precaution 
has been taken for each step throughout the process, 
we have in our description not mentioned the thorough 
inspection to which each operation has been subjected. 
But to eliminate the possibility of even one missing 
this important fact, we take this opportunity to men- 
tion that each step in the manufacture of Goodrich rubber 
footwear is given a most rigid inspection and this 
embraces every step from the milling of the com- 
pounds to the final act in the process, when each com- 
pleted shoe is carefully gone over in our hunt for defects. 

In conclusion we might also mention that in spite of 
the human element with which we have to deal, our 
special manufacturing appliances are such that the 
inevitable human mistake, whether in evidence or not, 
is positively eliminated before the product is ever 
considered for final inspection. Thus a very small 
percentage are discarded as not first class. 

Summary. The reader's conception of the manu- 
facture of rubber footwear as gained from a perusal of 
the foregoing chapter will probably result in the con- 
clusion that it is after all a simple process. Such a 
conclusion would be the result of sound reasoning, for 

32 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

there is nothing mysterious about it for the whole proc- 
ess is based on simple common sense shop practices. 
Scarcely a half of the story has been told, however, 
and too much knowledge must not be assumed from what 
has been gained through the pages of this book. Some 
facts have been omitted because they would serve no 
good purpose, and some because the factory considers 
them of too vital a nature to be generally pubhshed. 
These are the features characteristically Goodrich which 
make Hi-press and Straight-Line a superior product. 




33 



CHAPTER THREE 

A S/ioe for Every Purpose — A Size for 
Every Foot 

A Well -Balanced Line. After learning the im- 
portant facts of the history and manufacture of modern 
rubber footwear, one automatically turns to a considera- 
tion of the finished product. At this point, therefore, 
the reader will doubtless begin to inquire as to what 
our hne in its final form includes. He will, if experi- 
enced in the realm of footwear, immediately visualize 
a certain array of types and kinds which he will mentally 
catalogue into their proper classifications according to 
their various uses, and under each of these heads will 
picture the possible kinds and styles necessary to fill 
out a well-balanced complete line. 

Be he without previous knowledge of these things, 
the reader will, however, unless assisted, have consid- 
erable diiOficulty in arriving at a proper classification 
of the Goodrich line and at a full appreciation of its 
inclusiveness. For this reason this chapter dwells 
upon points which to the experienced will probably 
seem obvious, but which will nevertheless be of 
unquestionable value to the beginner. 

Any line of rubber footwear offered as complete from 
every standpoint must consist of numbers to meet all 
actual conditions of service and be designed to fill every 
reasonable popular demand. There must be heavy 
serviceable numbers for those engaged in rough work, 

34 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

such as mining, stone quarrying, farming, fishing, lumber- 
ing, etc. There must be light weight boots for sports- 
men, medium weight for mail carriers, and light weight 
overshoes to satisfy Dame Fashion, when she goes abroad 
during inclement weather. There must also be medium 
light serviceable arctics to accommodate school teachers 
and others living in the lands of deep winter snows, 
who are obliged to travel afoot to and from work. 

Heavy boots and shoes must be drafted along comfort- 
able as well as graceful lines, for no wise workman will 
consent to pinch his feet or have them rubbed by large 
and ill fitting shoes. 

The hght weight numbers must be kept in harmony 
with the existing styles of leather shoes, and espe- 
cially must women's styles be designed along graceful 
and well fitting lines, for no well dressed woman wishes 
to wear a clumsy and poorly fitting overshoe. 

Thus we can see that considerable experience, apart 
from mere rubber science, must enter into the manu- 
facture of rubber footwear, if the line is to be a success. 
No one who has to do with the fitting of shoes, much 
less the designing of them, can afford to be without an 
elementary knowledge of the anatomy of the foot. 
Consequently, the designer must be a student, following 
closely the changes in styles so as to keep the light 
overshoes up-to-date and must know how to produce 
a boot or heavy shoe that will give comfort. 

Goodrich Quality Footwear, which is made under 
two brands, Hi-press and "Straight-Line" is, in these 
respects all inclusive, consisting of a style for every 
real service requirement from the heavy miner's boot 
down to the smallest and lightest infant's number. 
Consequently, the merchant who establishes himself as 

35 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

the Hi-press and Straight-Line dealer will have a 
rubber footwear stock more satisfactory to sell from 
than any similar line ever before produced by a single 
company. It will give his place a reputation for quality 
^oods not possible under the old regime, where a dozen 
different brands and as many makes were necessary to 
complete his selection. 

The Hi-press Brand. Hi-press has set a new and 

exceedingly high mark for Boots, Sock Rubbers, Arctics, 
etc. In less than three years from its inception the 
demand for this line brought us to the position of 
being one of the largest manufacturers of rubber foot- 
wear in the country. Our sales have been constantly 
increasing and at an unprecedented rate ever since. 
And there is every reason to believe that this growth 
will continue. 

The Straight-Line Brand. Manufactured by us 
ever since 1905, and marketed direct since January, 1916, 
the Straight-Line brand has met with a success 
unparalleled and decidedly unique in the history of the 
light weight rubber shoe business. Without the aid 
of extensive advertising, but through the force of merit, 
the sales in this line advanced by leaps and bounds 
from the time it was first put upon the market and in an 
incredibly short period of time, attained a country 
wide popularity and reputation for quality. The 
words Straight-Line are synonymous with the pinnacle 
in values. 

Socks and Felt Boots. Accessory to every complete 
line of heavy rubber shoes there should be an assortment 
of socks and felt boots to go with them since one of the 

36 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

two are nearly always worn in conjunction and every 
dealer that handles this class of footwear also carries 
the socks and felts. We feel that without such an item 
our line would be incomplete. While we do not manu- 
facture this merchandise we have it made to our own 
specifications. 

Styles, Widths and Sizes. When applied to 
footwear, the term style as distinguished from fashion 
relates to the pattern or design of a particular shoe, 
and means collectively the distinctive features such as 
height, material, kind of toe, heel, etc., wherein it 
differs from other shoes. Needless to mention that 
frequent changes in styles are prompted primarily by 
a natural human desire for change and novelty, which, 
because of its element of uncertainty, is difficult to 
predict or fathom. Indeed, there is probably no phase 
of modern merchandising which requires more careful 
or constant study than the continuaUy changing humors 
of the pubhc with reference to fashion. 

There are three parties to be considered, viz., the 
manufacturer, the dealer and the pubHc. Each has 
an influence upon the success of a style, but no one 
of them can whoUy control its prosperity. It is rather 
for the manufacturer assisted by the dealer to originate, 
for the dealer to present and promote new styles and 
for the pubhc to receive or reject. 

Although in the hands of the pubhc rests the final 
decision, the dealer, who stands next to the consumer 
in the scheme of distribution, plays an important role 
in the field of fashion. He not only stands sponsor 
for what the manufacturer originates but must inform 
the manufacturer of the demands and desires of the 
buying pubhc. 

37 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

Goodrich Styles are conspicuous for their beauty and 
close fitting qualities; in truth among manufacturers 
of light and heavy footwear we have no superior in 
this respect. Especially so is this true of our light 
weight hne assortment of Women's, Men's, Misses and 
Boys' rubbers. This division of our product is com- 
plete, attractive, and up to the minute at all times. 




38 




Sold Everywhere — Even in Far Ojf Alaska 



Making Straight'Line Rubbers 




Stitching a Leather Top on Men's Hi-Press Ribbed Driver 



Factory Scenes 




Qoodrich Boot and Shoe Department 
Light and Air are of First Inportance Here 




The Finished Product 



CHAPTER FOUR 

Footwear Abuses and Care 

Service. A discussion of the factors which have 
a deciding influence upon the service the rubber boot 
or shoe will deliver is one to which we cannot hope to 
do justice in the few brief paragraphs allotted to this 
topic. Indeed, we are told that a whole volume could 
be written concerning the subject of abuses to which 
rubber boots and shoes fall heir and the remedial meas- 
ures which might be taken to prevent their unnecessary, 
premature destruction. 

This is, however, a subject so timely and important 
to the consumer, the dealer, and ourselves ahke, that 
we should consider our task but poorly done without at 
least a hint as to some of the more pronounced abuses 
to which rubber footwear of all descriptions is commonly 
subjected and what can be done as preventative meas- 
ures. 

Heat and Light. It is a fact well known to the 
student of rubber goods manufacture that the basic 
crude material, raw rubber, is subject to a more or 
less rapid deterioration when heated or exposed to 
strong sunlight. This action is retarded by compound- 
ing with other ingredients, but not arrested, and a 
temperature far below that necessary to "burn," i. e., 
decompose rubber, will cause a marked lessening of 
its tensile strength and sure decline in elasticity. 

The chemical action of direct sunlight is furthermore an 
exceedingly active agent in bringing about that condi- 
tion in manufactured rubber articles known as surface 

39 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

checking, which action is hastened if the surface of the 
article be put under strain from bending or stretching. 
Especially is this true where flexing is halted and resumed 
repeatedly, or in other words, where the stock is alter- 
nately compressed and released. 

It should, therefore, be quite evident, even to the 
novice, that rubber footwear which, by the way, cannot 
be worn without stretching or wrinkling excessively, 
is subjected to one of the very worst abuses with which 
rubber has to contend, and the fact that it cannot be 
worn with comfort in strong sunlight is all that prevents 
this factor from being a serious consideration. 

To sit close in front of the fire with the feet turned 
toward the blaze, or to stand over the hot air register 
is the most natural thing to expect of the man with 
cold feet. Yet if he realized the cost to him in the 
reduced service of his rubber boots or shoes from such 
a practice, he would probably take the pains to first 
remove his rubbers before toasting his toes. 

Then too, many a boy gets into the snow or water 
beyond the depth of his boots in refusing to take a dare, 
thus wetting the lining. The favorite, but fatal method 
used in afterward drying them out is by a baking in the 
oven or by hanging them upside down over the kitchen 
stove. This practice should be avoided. A pan of 
warm oats or pebbles poured within will do the trick 
much more effectively and without injury. 

Storage. One of the greatest needs of today in 
connection with the manufacture and marketing of 
rubber footwear is the necessity for educational work 
among dealers toward pointing out the evil effects 
attending the improper storage of their rubber commodi- 
ties. 

40 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

It is a common thing to find rubber footwear kept 
loose in warm rooms or in open boxes on shelves in 
well lighted places. One dealer was recently found who 
kept his stock in a many-windowed loft directly under 
a shingle roof where heat and light reigned supreme. 
Rubber footwear stocks are often used in window dis- 
plays and in the rural districts more frequently dis- 
played in open boxes either on the inside or outside of 
the store, both practices which have no good effect 
upon the service of the article. 

It is not our purpose to unduly alarm those who 
are not famihar with this phase of the rubber business 
or to mystify with a mass of technical information. We 
want merely to point out that there are ideal conditions for 
the storage of rubber boots and shoes under which they 
will retain their Hfe almost indefinitely. Our com- 
pounders and chemists have taken every precaution 
possible to counteract the effect of ordinary deteriorat- 
ing agencies and have succeeded admirably. There 
are, however, limits to the rubber chemist's abihty, 
just as there are hmitations in any science, and thus 
it is not unreasonable to ask that the dealer and user 
take ordinary precaution in the storage and use of rubber 
boots and shoes. 

It wiU be appreciated that no absolutely inflexible 
law can be advanced as to degree of temperature and 
humidity of rooms for the storage of rubber. But it is 
only common sense to say that if the store room is 
fairly dry and dark and reasonably cool that the stock 
will keep longer. 

Where used for display purposes, precaution should 
be taken that the sunlight is not allowed to beat directly 
upon rubber articles and that they are not left too long 

41 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

in the window. Unless these simple rules be followed, 
one cannot expect that the service given will be up 
to standard. 

Oil and Grease. The average person does not 
stop to consider that because rubbers are waterproof 
this is not a sign that they are also proof against kerosene, 
oil, gasoline, etc. Many a person has wondered why it 
was that the pair he never wore outside of the garage 
became spongy and porous around the soles. 

The fact that rubber boots and shoes which have been 
used around the garage where oil and grease are present, 
wear out prematurely, is not so strange to those who 
are familiar with the fact that oils, acids, and alkalies 
are natural enemies of rubber. When in contact with 
the vulcanized product to any marked degree, these 
things have a decidedly injurious effect which is certain 
and sure. 

Improper Fitting. If there is any one abuse 
which causes the failure of more rubbers than another, 
it is that occasioned by improper fitting. Such 
a condition is sometimes, we regret to admit, the fault 
of the dealer who, rather than chance the customers 
not waiting until a pair can be ordered, may sell him, 
say a size too large. More often, however, the injurious 
results of ill fittings are due to carelessness or ignorance 
on the part of the consuming public. A boot to many 
is merely a boot; so long as it will go on and not pinch. 
Size 9, they reason, should be just as good as size 8. 

The fact that the larger size means more and worse 
wrinkles, the slipping or moving about of the foot 
inside, and excessive bending of the sole, are factors 
they do not trouble themselves about. Very often, 
however, when the boot wears out before it should, 

42 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

these same individuals are quite likely to lay the blame 
on the manufacturer and many times, unfortunately, 
nothing the latter may say or do will serve to convince 
the user that he may possibly be at fault. 

Then too, the wide variation in lasts and styles of 
w:omen's shoes, ranging from the comfortable, low- 
heeled walking boot to the extremely high-heeled 
French shoe and the fact that rubbers made over one 
last are often worn over shoes of an entirely different 
character, is also the cause of the failure of such to 
give the service expected of them. It frequently 
happens that women will wear a pair of rubbers over 
their walking shoes that have been fitted to a semi- 
dress last with a higher heel of military design. The 
walking shoes may be one-quarter inch wider than the 
last over which the others were made and have a round 
in place of a pointed toe, and yet the wearer does not 
stop to think of this when the rubbers break out around 
the back. 

Care Propaganda. Unfortunately, these simple 
facts, if understood, are not always borne in mind by 
the shoe dealer and consequently are very seldom passed 
along in the form of advice to the ultimate purchaser. 
This is an unfortunate circumstance since there is 
great need for educational work among the users of 
rubber footwear concerning the evil effects of the lack 
of care and improper fitting. 

No opportunity should be lost to point out that oils, 
paint, barbed wire, nails, broken glass, hot ashes, etc. 
are all things which should be kept as far from the rub- 
ber boot or shoe as possible, and that those who do not 
heed this advice must expect to suffer the loss of a great 
deal of service that otherwise would accrue to them. 

43 



CHAPTER FIVE 

Footwear Marketing 

Sales Organization. Hi-press and "Straight- 



Line" boots and shoes are marketed through a corps 
of salesmen working exclusively in the interest of the 
footwear department during the season which begins 
around the first of the year and runs through to about 
the first of June. To this rule, however, there are occa- 
sional exceptions, i. e., in some cases footwear salesmen 
do not confine themselves exclusively to the sale of boots 
and shoes, but also engage in special sales activities. 
This arrangement is, however, the exception to the rule 
and is practiced only in thinly populated territories. 

Methods of Distribution. We have one decided 
advantage in marketing footwear by the direct to the 
dealer method, as we do, since we have our warehouse 
stocks in most large distributing centers throughout 
the United States. 

The benefits to be derived by the dealer from having 
these sources of supply close at hand will be readily 
apparent and a big point in our favor. These stocks 
ehminate delay and heavy express charges incidental to 
hurry up "sizing up" orders from a long distance. 

Since warehouse stocks exist to care for dealers' 
orders with the least possible delay, it is the intention 
to have them complete enough at all times to fill every 
reasonable immediate shipment order. Advance orders 
are, however, except in certain cases, shipped from the 

44 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

factory. We are, however, rapidly approaching the 
day when branch stocks will be complete enough at 
all times to fill all orders. 

Sales Policy. We follow the direct to the dealer 
policy in marketing, our salesmen actively soliciting 
business on both Hi-press and "Straight-Line" from 
all legitimate footwear dealers. This classification 
includes such concerns as Shoe Stores, Dry Goods 
Stores, Department Stores, Sporting Goods Stores, 
Clothing Stores, General Stores, or in fact, any merchant 
who engages in the retail sale of footwear for a profit. 

In addition to these general classes of trade, we will 
sell at dealers' prices direct to such concerns as chemical 
plants, coal and other mines, railroads, steel mills, 
construction companies and the ke. 

It is generally recognized by the trade that large cor- 
porations which maintain a purchasing department 
and buy large quantities of supplies are entitled to a 
price better than consumers. Since it is sure that 
these large industries do not, and will not buy their 
supplies from the retail merchant, we are not competing 
with the dealer by soliciting this business, and it cannot 
in any way be considered as interference with his legiti- 
mate trade. On the contrary, the dealer is helped 
rather than injured by such sales since the use of our 
goods by large industries is a stamp of approval worth 
capitahzing. At the same time the more widespread 
the distribution of the goods, the better known they 
become and hence the greater the demand from the 
dealer. 

We will, however, sell such concerns only when the 
total yearly business to be obtained will warrant the 

45 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

extension of the dealers' price. And if their volume be 
not large enough to justify their placing an initial 
order for at least our minimum quantity, they will be 
rightfully considered as consumers and quoted as such. 
In extending the dealers' price to corporations we have 
it understood that where they resell to their employees 
they do so at full consumers' prices, but this stipulation 
will not be construed as a prohibition against their 
furnishing boots to their employees free of charge. 

Guarantee and Adjustments. We guarantee all 
footwear bearing the Goodrich name and brand to be 
free from defects in material and workmanship. Should 
imperfections occur in any sold as first class, we will 
replace, charging the customer on the basis of service 
rendered by the defective pair. 

Any footwear returned for consideration under this 
guarantee will be accepted only when all transportation 
charges are prepaid, but our consent must first be 
had before such goods are returned. 

In this connection it might be well for us to explain 
that the "hackney answer" to all inquiries as to the 
service rendered by rubber boots showing defects is 
"three weeks," and " unfortunately for others, many 
dealers in the past have replaced for the customer on a 
one half basis in turn asking us to replace at httle or no 
cost. 

We are not, however, dependent upon guesswork 
when it comes to judging the probable wear a given 
pair of our shoes have been subject to, and therefore 
reserve the right to base our own conclusions, drawn 
from an examination by factory experts. 

Wherever and whenever we make a change in con- 
struction or bring out a new number, we know to a 

46 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

certainty before we put the change into effect or attempt 
to market the new product what can be expected in the 
way of service. Our laboratories have methods of testing 
the new product to insure positively its quality. This, 
however, should not be construed to mean that we are 
not liable to occasionally make mistakes in our factory 
operations, for after aU, we are dealing with a human 
element in all products. 




47 




48 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

Conclusion. The gigantic explosive industry of 
the United States which, at the beginning of the World 
War in 1914, developed almost over night, was immedi- 
ately confronted with the necessity of finding a market 
for a considerable quantity of by-products. One con- 
cern which during a few months of this period used 
daily at a single plant a miUion pounds of cotton for 
smokeless powder, turned its residue into druggists' 
sundries, such as toilet cases, combs, hair brushes and — 
into a substitute for leather. This last product, in 
view of the tremendous demand upon the world's 
limited and surely not increasing supply of real leather, 
bids fair to be of the greatest importance. 

At first this material was thought most suitable for 
upholstery, particularly that of automobiles. But 
the manufacturers of imitation leather have not been 
content to stop the development of this product and 
content themselves with the manufacture of upholstery 
material. Now that the demand for such enormous 
quantities of explosives has stopped, plants and ma- 
chinery must be turned to other uses and they are experi- 
menting with material to be used in the manufacture 
of shoes, and already can make an article which, with 
the exception of a few minor details, will meet all re- 
quirements. Eventually these drawbacks will be over- 
come and the leatherless shoe will be evolved. 

The public will naturally inquire if this step is not a 
portention of the end of the rubber overshoe. Not at 
all. While it surely marks the beginning of a new era 
in footwear development, the shoe — whether fibre or 
leather — must continue to be porous to be wearable, 
and being such the rubber must need still be its necessary 
auxiliary. 

49 



Rubberized 
Fabrics 



50 



CHAPTER SIX 

History of Ruhherizing 

Definition of Waterproof. As may be inferred, 
the waterproofing of fabric implies its treatment with 
some insoluble material in order to render its fibre non- 
absorbent, or that some substance has been combined 
with the yarn or otherwise applied so that the fabric 
wiU turn water sufficiently to keep it from becoming 
entirely saturated. 

This result may be arrived at by any one of three 
methods, viz., treatment by chemical means so as to 
permeate the fibre of the yarn with an insoluble oxide 
such as aluminum salts; impregnation of the fibre by 
mechanical action with some inorganic material such as 
wax or paraffin; or by making the fabric impermeable to 
water by the application of a thin coating of vulcanized 
rubber. 

To accomplish the first method a variety of chemicals 
may be used which affect the fibre of the yarn so minutely 
that a change is not noticeable except by microscopic 
inspection. Due to the fact that they destroy the life 
of the fabric, causing its comparatively early deteriora- 
tion, most of these chemical processes are, however, 
unsuitable. Moreover, positive impermeability can 
never be attained by a chemical treatment of yarns. 
Even though the cloth may appear to be waterproof 
and may shed rain fairly well, it will wet through. 

51 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

PEiraffin, wax, animal fats, mineral oils, varnishes, 
gelatin, etc., constitute the inorganic class of materials 
used in the treatment of fabric to make it shed water. 
These mainly affect but the surface of the yarn and, 
like the chemical treatment, merely render the fabric 
water-repellant. 

This is to say that, in either case, the spaces between 
warp and filler threads are still left open and hence 
water is bound to get through if given time. By the 
application of a thin coating of rubber, fabric is, how- 
ever, rendered positively and permanently water- 
proof, providing, of course, the work has been scienti- 
fically and carefully done. 

This statement brings us to an interesting distinction 
between the meaning of the words "water-repellant" 
and "waterproof" as brought out by the following 
quotation from an authority on the subject. "The 
opinion of prominent men in the textile trade is that 
while shower-proof, weather-proof or water-repellant, 
whichever way one cares to express it, indicates a fabric 
which has been chemically or otherwise treated so as to 
render the yarn non-absorbent, a truly waterproof 
fabric is one coated with rubber. 

To discuss all the materials and methods which have 
been and are used for the treatment of fabrics in an 
attempt to make them turn water either partially or 
wholly, would be impractical in a text of this character. 
Suffice it to relate that it is only with the last mentioned, 
viz., rubberizing, with which we have to deal and to 
which consideration will be given. 

Our main object is to describe in a non-technical 
way the preparation of fabrics for manufacture into the 
many useful, yes indispensible rubberized waterproof 

52 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

articles which today add to the comfort and convenience 
of mankind. Insofar as we have attempted to treat 
the subject, this section of the book will be found 
authoritative and we believe can be considered suffici- 
ently complete for all practical elementary study. 

Origin. Not unlike the origin of many of our present 
day conveniences, that of rubberized waterproof fabric 
is not definitely known. We do know, however, that 
the native of South America was rubberizing a crude 
form of fabric and using it for various and sundry pur- 
poses at the time of Columbus' discovery. In all 
probabihty, native rubberized waterproof fabric was 
made use of many centuries before Columbus, but 
whether or not this be true, it is a fact that the "true 
American" at least fathered the idea. 

In the records of the first use of rubber by the white 
explorer we find that the Spanish who entered Mexico 
in the sixteenth century, following the native custom, 
took up the practice of spreading linen with the latex 
from the rubber tree. Out of this they manufactured 
many waterproof articles such as tents, cloaks, etc. 

Soon afterward some of this novel material was sent 
to Europe, and as a "new product of a new world" 
created widespread popular curiosity. Because, how- 
ever, of the difficulties encountered in thus rubberizing 
fabric with the hquid cahuchu, (rubber) as it came from 
the tree, articles manufactured from it naturally were 
destined to remain in the curio class, and as a conse- 
quence, sell for fabulous prices. 

Some idea of these false values can be gained from 
the story of the King of Portugal and his rubber suit. 
It is related that he sent some very fine fabrics to the 
colony of Para where they were rubberized for his 
personal use. 

§3 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

There was, however, another angle to the situation 
which had an influence in holding back commercial 
development. In other words, being "Made in America" 
without knowledge of the nature of the material with 
which they were working and in transit on the return 
trip to Europe for so long, these original rubberized fab- 
rics were practically lifeless before being put into actual 
service, and although sales became comparatively brisk 
during the early half of the eighteenth century, the busi- 
ness was destined to fail before it fairly began because 
the articles made were so far from serviceable. 

Recognizing these unfortunate facts and also visualiz- 
ing the great field which might be developed with a 
genuinely practical rubberized fabric, importers en- 
deavored to keep the public interest stimulated in the 
hope that some successful process of rubberizing might 
soon be developed. A number of men began to study 
possibilities from this angle and to experiment with 
rubber in its coagulated form. Out of this study and 
research our present highly commercialized rubberized 
fabric industry has been evolved. 

Commercial Development. Commercial develop- 
ment of the rubberizing business probably owes its 
beginning to Samuel Peal, an Englishman who began 
to experiment with rubber in 1791. Up to this time 
it was believed that the only way to rubberize was by 
smearing or painting the cloth with the latex just as it 
came from the tree. Europeans even went so far as to 
import "rubber milk" by the cask; a scheme which, 
by the way, turned out rather "SMELLY." 

Peal, however, conceived the idea of melting the 
coagulum or rubber biscuit to a thin liquid state which 
he determined could be applied as easily as the latex 

54 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

and do away with the necessity of shipping the cloth 
across the sea and back. Immediately afterward he 
opened a factory in London for the manufacture of 
rubber coats which, by placing this particular rubberized 
fabric item easily within the reach of all purses, robbed 
the industry of its chief commercial asset — novelty. 

Although it is true that Peal's invention enabled him 
to manufacture more rapidly and consequently more 
cheaply than ever before possible, it did not overcome 
the major objections attending the use of rubberized 
fabric, viz., its natural tendency toward stickiness under 
the influence of heat and its certainty to harden and 
crack in the cold. 

As long as rubberized cloth had remained a curi- 
osity these shortcomings were overlooked but immedi- 
ately the new process made it a staple product the 
public naturally expected to receive value. Failing to 
do so, confidence was lost, and interest in all articles 
made from rubberized fabric died out. 

Twenty-nine years after Peal — i. e. 1820, Nadier, 
also an EngUshman, worked out a method for cutting 
sheeted rubber into threads which he proposed to weave 
into cloth, and in the same year Thomas Hancock 
opened a rubber factory in London. While the assertion 
cannot be verified, we are inclined to believe that 
Hancock's factory was built partially for the purpose 
of manufacturing Nadier's woven rubber cloth. The 
experiment, however, was short-lived for it was 
soon found that standeu-d weaving machinery was not 
adaptable to elastic thread. 

Three years after the opening of Hancock's factory, 
Charles Mcintosh discovered the solubility of rubber 
in coal-tar naphtha, conceiving the idea of lining cloth 

55 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

with a thin "skin" of rubber which he manufactured 
by spreading his solution over a marble slab and there 
allowing the solvent to evaporate. Later on Hancock 
devised machinery for spreading this solution directly 
to the surface of the fabric, the forerunner of the modern 
spreading process so widely used today. 

On account of his discovery, Mcintosh is popularly 
considered as the father of rubberized fabric. If we, 
however, were to date its beginning from this point, 
we would give Hancock a generous share of the credit 
because it was he who invented the mechanical means 
for the direct application of Mcintosh's "rubber batter." 

American Development. Although beginning at 
a somewhat later date, the early history of rubberized 
fabric in the United States about parallels that of the 
European story. The first rubber articles seen were the 
curious native pouches and shoes which latter they 
termed "gumboots," imported from South America 
into Boston about 1820. 

A patent was granted to one Jacob Hummel of 
Philadelphia in 1823 for coating fabrics through the 
application of a gum-elastic varnish, but beyond the 
record there seems to be no mention of his product. 
Evidently it was never put into use. 

Seventeen years after this The Roxbury India Rubber 
Company of Connecticut was chartered to manufacture 
footwear and other articles from a fabric coated with 
rubber and lampblack dissolved in spirits of turpentine, 
after a plan worked out jointly by Hancock and Mc- 
intosh, and following this, several small factories sprung 
up in New England for the purpose of manufacturing 
rubberized waterproof articles. 

Several schemes were inaugurated for improving the 

56 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

quality of the compound, such as mixing in magnesia, 
lime and sulphur, but beyond stimulating hope these 
formulas did little real good. 

Although each step taken by early American inven- 
tors to perfect mechanical methods for rubberizing 
seemed to be taken in the right direction toward the 
improvement of standard items of merchandise, the 
truth is that articles of rubberized fabrics were not 
making progress but actually became less and less 
popular with the public. 

As was true of the European-made product, American 
goods owed what little popularity they did at first enjoy 
to the fact that they were novelties and obtainable only 
by people of means. And in spite of the efforts of those 
who were interested and bending every energy to foster 
its popularity, the rubber industry would have died 
out completely had it not been for one notable event. 

We refer to the timely discovery of vulcanization by 
Charles Goodyear in 1839-44, which hterally gave "new 
life" to the rubberizing business. This discovery has, 
in fact, proved to be the foundation upon which all 
rubber manufacture has since been built. 

War as a Stimulating Influence. Rubberized 
fabrics as well as other articles after Goodyear's dis- 
covery soon reached a point in development where 
they could be called practical. 

Nevertheless, past experiences of the public had been 
such that this was not generally recognized until the 
needs of the army during our Civil War demonstrated 
the true worth of rubber as a surfacing material for fabrics. 
Waterproof blankets, tarpauhns, gun covers, capes 
and coats were required. Large contracts for the neces- 

57 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

sary articles were placed with the rubberizers and this 
circumstance gave the business the needed incentive 
for further development after the war. 

From this point on, however, the story of rubberized 
fabrics is merely one of the successive steps in commer- 
cial development. Suffice it to relate that this has been 
a slow but steady expansion. The tremendously large 
Ust of products made today was not developed over 
night but gradually, item by item of practical worth 
has been added until there is today hardly a field left 
untouched where rubberized fabrics have not demon- 
strated their usefulness and superiority. 

From this class of material, automobile tops and 
curtains, seat covers and hood blankets are manufac- 
tured. Balloons, domestic aprons, camp stools, inner- 
tube manufacturers' mill-aprons, organ and player- 
piano bellows fabrics, reinforcement for leather shoe 
uppers, hospital sheeting, refrigerator door lining, capes 
and coats are also all made from a rubberized vulcan- 
ized fabric. 

By making a close study of the pulse of industry 
one will realize that the future possibihties of the 
waterproof fabric business are truly enormous. Es- 
pecially is this true where the material has been ren- 
dered positively and permanently waterproof by the use 
of an impenetrable coating of rubber. And, even 
though other methods for treating fabrics are still 
employed with more or less success, the use of a 
rubberized cloth for utility purposes has gained a de- 
servedly popular leadership and for reasons so per- 
tinent that we enumerate them. 
Ist — It is absolutely waterproof when honestly 

made. 

58 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

2nd — Through the fact that it withstands changes 
in temperature. 

3rd — Rubberizing does not shorten the life of the cloth 
to an appreciable extent. 

4th — The rubberizing process can be applied to colored 
cloth as easily as to plain. 

5th — The cloth can be made water-repellant as well 
as waterproof. 

6th — Manufacturers have been able to turn out rub- 
berized cloth at an attractive cost. 

Goodrich. As manufacturers of a general rubber 
goods hne, The B. F. Goodrich Company has been con- 
cerned in the production of rubberized fabrics of one 
kind or another for a good many years past. Only 
recently, however, has the demand reached such pro- 
portions as to justify the establishment of a big manu- 
facturing department, the sole efforts of which are 
devoted to the production of this class of rubber goods. 

In other words, while we have operated spreading 
machinery for a good many years on which materials 
were coated for our various departments, we did not 
feel until recently that the business to be had from other 
users was sufficient to warrant the enlarging of this 
department to its present proportions. 

At the beginning of the World War, however, the 
B. F. Goodrich Company was requested by the Govern- 
ment to accept a contract for the construction of balloons. 
To fulfill our obligation to humanity by doing this 
work successfully, and on time, it was necessary to 
insteJl many new spreading machines on which to 
prepare the necessary fabrics. This equipment which, 
by the way, now gives us one of the largest spreader 
capacities in the world, has been converted to the pro- 

59 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

duction of rubberized fabrics for the many various 
peace time commercial products. 

We can say, therefore, that once again it was through 
the necessities of war that the rubberized fabric business 
received an incentive for expansion which continued 
after the world swung around to a peace basis. In 
other words, the necessities of the armies for great 
quantities of rubberized fabric articles, such as blankets, 
gun covers, tarpaulins, coats, balloons, etc., stimulated 
a development which otherwise would probably not 
have taken place at such a rapid pace and we might 
have been several years in bringing our rubberizing 
department to its present importance. 

It was an easy matter, when our Government con- 
tracts were completed early in 1919, to swing the huge 
department which we had built up during the war 
period over to other products. 




60 



CHAPTER SEVEN 

Ruhherizing Materials and Processes 

Fabrics. The art of weaving is one of the oldest 
known to man. For centuries back, no one knows how 
far, cloth of one sort or another has been made by all 
but the most savage and lowest types of peoples, and 
even these, to a limited extent, have always practiced 
the art of weaving grasses and fibrous plants into the 
form of cloth. And yet today the subject of fabrics 
is one little understood by the general public. 

Even among those who come in daily contact with 
articles of merchandise made from fabrics, there is 
considerable confusion as to the various classifications 
and how one fabric is distinguished from another. 
It is, in fact, a subject which would take a lifetime to 
master and there is little wonder that there are but com- 
paratively few men who are authority on all kinds of 
fabric. 

This condition is probably partly due to the infinite 
variety of patterns and weaves produced and the mul- 
titudinous uses to which fabrics are put. But there is, 
however, another cause to whose door can doubtless 
be laid the greater share of the blame for this condition 
of confusion. By this we mean that certain patterns 
and weaves are originated which have pronounced and 
distinctive characteristics. These soon become known 
by trade names peculiar to the types of weave used or 
to the places where they are produced. 

Usually a new pattern and weave is first made in 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

one locality for a single purpose and from one raw 
material. Later on other fabrics appear which are imi- 
tations of the original in name and frequently in appear- 
ance, but which are woven from another raw material 
and intended for a different purpose. Then again sim- 
ilar or identical fabrics made in different localities may 
be known by entirely dissimilar names. 

Thus^at the start Jare we confronted with considerable 
difficulty in properly classifying the many weaves and 
patterns which we are called upon to rubberize, for so 
it is with the fabrics used by the rubberizing trade. 
Belonging to an entirely separate classification, differing 
from all others as to the way in which they are manu- 
factured, these fabrics are, nevertheless, known by names 
which may denote in another class of goods a cloth of 
an entirely dissimilar nature. 

For this reason the description of fabrics as used by 
the rubberizing trade may not fit the reader's concep- 
tion of what their names indicate. 

Rubberizers and manufacturers of waterproof articles 
are not, however, responsible for the names of the 
fabrics they may use. In fact, they have nothing what- 
ever to do with their manufacture and must order their 
fabrics by whatever trade names the textile industry 
sees fit to designate them. 

There is one point, however, on which the reader of 
this text can be assured, and that is that all such 
fabrics are specially woven for the rubberizing trade 
and carefully selected with their ultimate purpose in 
mind. Reputable rubberizers and makers of rubberized 
articles choose only fabrics which can be calculated to 
give the ultimate purchaser the best possible service 
and value considering the price he pays. 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

The student of rubberizing, therefore, need not at this 
time concern himself greatly with the question of fabrics. 
Suffice it for the present to say that with us all fabric 
falls into either one of two general divisions, viz., those 
which are purchased by our customers and sent to us 
for rubberizing and those purchased by ourselves which 
we rubberize and sell as a completed material to makers 
of special items. 

Those sent to Jus by the waterproof clothing trade 
for rubberizing consist of popular patterns and weaves, 
coming mostly under the class of seasonable numbers. 
In other words, although there are a few staples, the 
bulk of all garment fabrics change year by year. Any 
text, therefore, which attempts to describe these fabrics 
would necessarily be subject to annual revision. For 
this reason, and further because we are in no way in- 
terested in the product of the garment maker beyond 
furnishing a dependable rubber coating for his fabrics, 
we do not deem it advisable or wise to attempt further 
classification. 

The fabrics we purchase to rubberize and sell under 
the Goodrich name to the automobile industry and to 
the specialty manufacturer are, however, of a more 
staple and substantial nature. These generally come 
under the classification of drills, jeans, ducks, whip- 
cords, sheetings, mohairs, etc., and are selected by us 
because of certain qualities which they possess to 
recommend them as capable of taking and holding 
a rubber compound, and further because they are best 
quality and weave for the ultimate use each is intended. 

During the processes of weaving and finishing cloth 
certain minerals are made use of for scouring, bleaching, 
etc., which, if not removed from the fibre, will render 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

the fabric unsuitable for rubberizing. In our selection, 
therefore, we must make sure that nothing is present 
in either warp or weave which, when combined with the 
compounds of our formula, will produce a result different 
from the one intended. This, therefore, makes it 
necessary for us to inspect and test all fabric, to assure 
ourselves that each lot we purchase possesses proper 
tensile strength, correct number of warp and filler 
threads to the inch, proper length of staple and hardness 
of yarn and also that it meets the chemical requirements 
of fabric to be rubberized. 

Where colored fabrics are to be rubberized strict 
attention must be paid to the quality of the dye for 
some dyes will not stand up under rubberizing although 
first quality in every other respect. And again, some 
dyes will during vulcanization react with the ingredi- 
ents of our formula and thus bring about a different 
color from the one we started out with. In other 
words, change color entirely. 

As an example of this, in fabrics that are woven for 
the waterproof clothing trade copper and manganese 
salts cannot be used in dye work since the rubberizing 
process will cause these dyes to run and spot. The same 
is true of chrome and iron salts, and for the same reason 
the presence of bichloride of tin in silks for rubberizing is 
objectionable. 

During the war there was a shortage of aniline dyes, 
and as a substitute it was found that the most suit- 
able for use in coloring waterproof clothing fabrics were 
those known as sulphur dyes. Also during this period 
vegetable oils for scouring fabrics were scEU'ce and min- 
eral oils were substituted successfully. These are only 
a few of the problems to be met and overcome in color- 
ing a fabric for the rubberizer. 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

Compounds. Rubber compounds as used in the 
waterproofing of fabrics, are naturally of many grades, 
colors and mixtures. The many uses to which rub- 
berized fabrics are put demand this. This is to say 
that a compound suitable for auto top fabric would not 
work out in a balloon fabric, or a compound suited to a 
garment fabric would not give service if used in a 
rubber manufacturer's "mill apron." 

To carry the example further, hospital sheeting, to 
carry out the sanitary vogue, must be white, or to be 
more adaptable to operating room work is made maroon ; 
the mixtures used to rubberize fabrics for the garment 
trade must match the colors in the cloth, and the com- 
pound in a shoe-backing cloth must be of a composition 
which will not harden and crack or be subject to the 
action of perspiration. And so on and on indefinitely. 

From this it will be clear that each division of the 
product has its own compounding problems and that 
in order to meet the service demands, our laboratories 
must have a thorough understanding of the conditions 
under which each type of fabric will eventually be used. 

It is not our intention to cite how we meet the varied 
conditions or tell what ingredients are used. Indeed, 
this information is held as the secret of our success as 
the leading manufacturers of this class of rubber goods 
and the formulas, naturally, are kept a secret. We 
cite the theorem merely to show that rubber com- 
pounds are not a haphazard collection of materials, 
but a collection of scientifically worked out chemical 
formulas. 

There are literally hundreds of minerals and other 
ingredients which may be used in compounding rubber 
for the manufacture of rubberized waterproof fabrics; 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

indeed, there are always several materials which will 
perform approximately the same work. Our selection, 
however, is based on careful analysis and is the result 
of years of study and research into the chemical mysteries 
of rubber manufacture. The same rigid system of 
tests and inspections is used in controlling the quality 
of our compounding ingredients as is used in the selection 
of our fabrics. Certain minerals are procured for a 
given purpose and we test to make sure they meet 
requirements. 

The various mineral ingredients used in the manu- 
facture of compounds for waterproofing fabric are 
mixed with the rubber by a milling process identically 
the same as the same preliminary step in the manufacture 
of all other rubber goods. Inasmuch, therefore, as the 
progress of compounding and milhng has been described 
in the first volume of this series we will continue this 
description from the point where the "batch stock" is 
delivered to the rubberizing department from the mill 
rooms. 

Rubberizing. Waterproof fabrics are not all rub- 
berized in the same way, nor is the same machinery 
used in every case. In other words, some fabrics are 
"spread" with a thin rubber batter, while others are 
coated by passing them between the rolls of a calender. 
Fabrics may be frictioned or coated or frictioned and 
coated; a rubber surface may be applied to one side of 
the cloth or the fabric may be double-surfaced, as 
conditions surrounding each case dictate. 

If to be a "doubled" proposition, such as fabrics for 
double texture garments or for tube makers' mill aprons, 
two plies are each coated on one side and stuck together. 
If a fabric be of loose, soft weave, the coating must be 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

done by the spreading process, but, on the contrary, if 
the fabric is a tightly woven material, such as sheeting, 
drill or jeans, a calender is used. 

Where the spreading process is to be employed the 
compound, of course, must to reduced from the "batch" 
stock to a pasty semi-hquid state of much the same 
consistency as molasses in cold weather. The accomp- 
lishment of this reduction is done by churning the stock 
in a solvent such as benzine, the slabs being first run 
through a warming mill to make them pliable and more 
quickly susceptible to the action of the solvent. 

As may be imagined, transformation of the batch 
stock to a semi-liquid is further accelerated by the action 
of a series of rotating knives and plates similar to those 
found in the ordinary ice-cream freezer. These agitators 
operate in sets, revolving about an axis, each alternate 
set moving in the opposite direction, thus stirring the 
contents with a double cutting action. 

The spreader or machine by which the semi-liquid 
rubbers are applied to the fabric resembles roughly a 
huge oblong iron table. The standard type of spreader 
is approximately five feet wide, twenty feet long, and 
stands about forty-five inches ofi" the floor. This 
machine is really a combination rubberizer and evap- 
orator consisting of in addition to the rubberizing 
feature a series of hollow steam plates mounted on 
a suitable frame work and above which are a num- 
ber of pulleys spaced at intervals to carry the fabric 
away from the heated top of the table. At the front 
end is located the driving mechanism, feed pulleys, 
etc., also the paraphernaUa necessary for application 
of the rubber coating. 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

This last is merely a knife or series of knives held in 
clamps and adjustable through the action of two hand 
screws, one on either end of the clamp. At the tail 
end of the machine is a pulley of larger diameter over 
which the material is returned, and other apparatus 
for suitably directing it onto rewinding shells. 

All fabrics to be rubberized must be delivered to the 
machinery wound on shells, i.e., hollow metal or wooden 
cylinders, so equipped that they can be fastened to a 
feed shaft. Let us assume that the roll which we are 
about to run has been inspected, dried and wound onto 
the proper shell. It is then placed in position at the 
feed end of the spreading machine and a "leader" strip 
fastened to the free end. A "leader strip" is a length 
of muslin sheeting the purpose of which is merely to 
draw the fabric through the machine so that rubberiz- 
ing may begin under proper tension at the very end of 
the fabric. 

This leader strip is passed under the knife and over 
the pulleys to the opposite end of the table. At this 
point it is carried underneath the bed plates and re- 
turned to the feed-end where it is attached to the re- 
winding shell. 

A quantity of rubber batter is then placed on the 
fabric in front of the knife and the machine started. 
As the fabric passes underneath this knife it scrapes 
off, or to be more exact, holds back all but a very thin 
coating. The thickness of this, as may be imagined, 
is determined by the adjustment of the knife through 
the hand screws previously mentioned. These may 
be raised so that a very thick coating is left or may 
be lowered so close to the material that we leave but 
a quarter ounce of rubber to the square yard of cloth. 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

Frequently five plies of gum are spread to a single 
piece of fabric; occasionally it is run through the machine 
but once; generally, however, at least three spreads are 
desirable. This means that the fabric must be passed 
through the machine once for each ply of compound 
desired. 

The questions of coating, thickness and the number of 
times through the machine is, however, largely deter- 
mined by the use to which the fabric will eventually 
be put. This is a technical detail which need not con- 
cern the seeker for elementeu-y knowledge, and suffice 
it for him to know that such and such is the case, leav- 
ing the "where and how" to the chemist and factory 
operators. There is, however, a fundamental of rub- 
berizing which may profitably be interjected at this 
time. This is the thought that a coating may be light 
or it may be heavy, but ordinarily in coatings of equal 
thickness it is the one lighter in weight per square yard 
which is the better quaHty. 

After the entire piece has passed under the knife, the 
machine is stopped and the operator removes the 
excess compound, after which he lifts the knife 
and again starts the machine. Here another salvage 
strip, similar to the one which was used as a "leader" 
appears, it having been cemented on before the fabric 
was first wound onto the shell. This tail strip is just 
long enough so that there will be an even tension on the 
stock being coated until it is entirely rewound under- 
neath the head end of the machine. If there are to be 
successive coatings, the order is reversed each time and 
the tail strip becomes a leader strip. 

If a particularly "tacky" compound is to be used we 
interwind with the rubberized fabric a treated muslin 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

sheet or liner. This is done in order to prevent the 
coated side from sticking and thus spotting the un- 
coated side or ruining the rubber surfacing itself. 

Many difficulties attend the rubberizing of fabrics 
which the user of the completed article never thinks of, 
and which even the salesman who sells the article sel- 
dom appreciates. We have already mentioned the 
chemical problems which confront the rubberizer 
of fabrics; how the question of colors must be carefully 
checked up, and also how skill must be exercised in 
compounding so as to insure a permanent surfacing. 

There are, however, as many mechanical problems to 
contend with, which affect the actual handling of 
materials through the plant as there are chemical prob- 
lems to contend with in laying out the work. As an 
example of this, static electricity is generated by drag- 
ging fabric over the top of the machine, and even though 
this machinery be carefully grounded to prevent it, an 
occasional hot spark will explode the gases arising from 
the evaporation of the solvent. 

Were not hoods placed above the tables to gather up 
this vapor, and by a system of fans scatter it to the out- 
side air, some extremely disastrous fires might occur and 
thus a great deal of material might be ruined. This is a 
thing which we have to guard against carefully, not 
only because materials might be ruined and production 
interrupted, but above all because the safety and lives 
of workmen might otherwise be jeopardized. 

The rubberizing of fabrics such as jeans, drills, sheet- 
ings, etc., is not done by the spreading process, but on 
the contrary accomplished through the use of the 
standard rubber working calender. This variation in 
processing is partly possible because the texture of 

70 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

these fabrics is such that the slower more tedious spread- 
ing operation is not required to accomplish the same 
result. In other words, they are firm, strong fabrics — 
mostly cottons — which can be handled by the calender 
without danger of injury. 

The nature of the articles into which these fabrics are 
eventually made is, however, sometimes of such as to 
demand a more intimate union of rubber and fabric 
than possible to attain through the use of a spreading 
machine although this does not always necessarily follow. 

Compounds for calendered fabrics are deHvered to th e 
machine in "batch" form but before used these are also 
run through the warming mill in order to make them 
pliable and more quickly responsive to the action of the 
calender roUs. 

Calenders are of many types and kinds, and it would 
be impractical for us to attempt a description of them 
all. Suffice it to say that the fabric rubberizing calender is 
known either as a friction calender or a "skim coat" 
calender and, as a general rule, consists of a stack of 
three to five parallel rollers set in an upright frame so 
that one or more are made to carry the fabric while the 
others carry the compound. 

All rollers are equipped with hot and cold water con- 
nections to control temperatures, and are adjustable so 
that the distance between them can be varied to accom- 
modate the many types of fabric and different thick- 
nesses of rubber coatings demanded. 

The fabric is fed through from one side, usually be- 
tween the two lower rollers, while the compound is 
fed into the opposite side, between top and middle 
rolls. As the fabric passes over the lower roller and 
returns to the side of the machine from which it was 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

fed, the next roll above, which carries the compound, 
deposits its load on the fabric at the point where 
the two rolls meet. 

Some fabrics are frictioned only. In other words, the 
mesh of the weave is filled with rubber, leaving bare 
spots on the "crowns" where warp and weave threads 
cross. Other fabrics are frictioned and afterward coated ; 
that is, in addition to the friction coat have a thin film 
of rubber laid evenly over the surface, this feature 
depending, of course, upon the purpose for which the 
material is intended. 

Frictioning, however, is one thing and coating another, 
which is to say that where the compound is wiped into 
the mesh of fabric, the calender roll which carries the 
gum and the one which carries the fabric run at a de- 
cidedly differential speed, the former revolving at the 
faster rate. This motion tends to retard the fabric 
or produce friction between fabric and rubber, from 
whence the process derives its name. 

On the other hand, the same two rolls of a coating 
calender are geared so as to run at a more nearly uniform 
speed, and because of this the compound leaves its roll 
and is spread evenly over the fabric in a film. Hence 
a coating calender. We may produce a single friction 
and coated material or a double friction and coated ma- 
terial. In other words, the fabric may be treated on 
one side or on both, depending upon the requirements 
of the case. 

Doubling. To the rubberizing trade "doubled" 
fabric implies a material of dual texture with a coating 
of rubber between. This may be two plies of the same 
fabric, in which case it is known as "back-to-back" 
or it may consist of dissimilar kinds of cloth. Doub- 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

ling is the operation involved in bringing the two fabrics 
together. 

This operation is done on a special machine resembling 
roughly an ordinary laundry mangle. This machine 
consists of suitable feed attachments and two semi- 
hard rubber rolls mounted in an upright frame. The 
rolls are so geared that they turn toward each other 
and at a uniform speed. The heavier fabrics generally 
follow the upper roll, while the lighter ones are fed over 
the lower. As the two plies meet, the rubberized sur- 
faces (uncured) are brought into contact and pressed 
firmly together, sufficient pressure being brought to 
bear to smooth out all wrinkles and cause one ply to 
adhere to the other without air spaces between. 

It sometimes so happens, however, that a compara- 
tively delicate fabric is doubled with one of heavier 
body made from more tightly twisted yarns. This is 
where the rubber covered rolls get in their fine work, 
and is only another example of how production problems 
are met and overcome. In other words, these rubber 
covered rolls, although exerting considerable pressure 
against the material, have a certain amount of "give." 
This feature prevents the yarn of a hard finished goods 
from cutting into and ruining one of more dehcate weave, 
a feat which would be impossible to accomphsh were the 
rollers of the doubhng machine made of steel. 

Some manufacturers are unable to bring about a 
combination of wool and silk without ruining the sheen 
of the latter; some cannot prevent the compound from 
"striking through," i. e., appearing in small drops upon 
the uncoated side of the fabric ; that is, squeezing through 
the mesh, while others find great difficulty in keeping 
the silk from wrinkling and bunching when doubling 
it with a heavier fabric. 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

These are only a few of the difficulties with which the 
rubberized fabric manufacturer has to contend and 
which we have mastered. As mentioned before, both 
plies coated with a particularly "tacky" or sticky com- 
pound are later cured together so that they become 
virtually inseparable. 

Vulcanization. In the production of rubberized 
waterproof fabrics two methods of cure are in vogue. 
One is brought about by the action of acid vapors and 
known as the "acid-cure" method, the other is brought 
about by the application of heat, and is known as the 
"steam-cure" method. 

Acid-curing, although an inferior method, and un- 
satisfactory in every way, is, nevertheless, rather widely 
used among rubberizers of certain types of fabrics. 
Not because any one believes this method to have any 
special merit is it popular, but because it is cheap and 
produces a cheap material, which is exactly what is 
aimed at. Acid vulcanization is accomplished by 
hanging the fabrics in a tight chamber where the rub- 
berizing is exposed to vapors. 

Acids, such as carbon di-sulphide, which possess the 
power to act upon rubber compounds as a vulcanizing 
agent are, of course, used. Incidentally, however, 
only the surface of the rubber becomes cured, leaving 
the under side soft and unchanged, and because of 
this, the shghtest scratch will cut through resulting in a 
ruined article. Moreover, acid cured rubber soon dries 
out and crumbles away from the goods. In many 
instances the acid affects the color of the cloth, not 
infrequently ruining its appearance and sometimes 
also its texture. 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

Acid cured rubber surfaced fabrics are easy to detect 
by their bright metallic appearance. Experts can 
identify other acid cured fabric by the pecuhar odor 
which it gives off. 

Steam vulcanizing of rubberized fabric is accomplished 
by looping the material in long folds over poles sus- 
pended in movable frames, run into air-tight chambers, 
and left for a stated period of time under a temperature 
which slowly and thoroughly changes the rubber com- 
pound from a sticky, useless mess to a tough, elastic 
and dependable product. 

Steam vulcanization takes more time and requires a 
considerably more expensive equipment. On the other 
hand, this method insures a thoroughly satisfactory 
result, and is the only one which conforms to the prin- 
ciples of high grade rubberized fabric production as 
practiced in the Goodrich factory. 

The fabrics thus cured are, in fact, made impervious 
to the action of the elements or to changes in tempera- 
ture, without in any way detracting from durability or 
appearance, a condition which cannot be true of an 
acid cured material. 

In the modern, up-to-date factory steam vulcanizers 
are equipped with thermostatic recorders by means of 
which it is possible to regulate accurately the heat of 
the cure during the entire period required to accomplish 
the "change." 




75 




76 



CHAPTER EIGHT 

Brass Tacks of Rubberizing 

The Product — Its Uses. There is almost no limit 
to the possibility for extending and expanding the field 
of rubberized fabric sales. An appreciation of the real 
worth of a covering material which is waterproof, 
sun-proof, and, in fact, almost wholly impervious to the 
influence of weather conditions and which is durable 
yet pliable and easily worked into a thousand and one 
shapes without losses occasioned by variation of thick- 
ness or quality, is just commencing among the arts and 
creifts. 

Hundreds of waterproof coverings which here- 
tofore have been made from leather, oil-cloth or 
the class of material known as oil-skin, are today being 
made from a more suitable, more durable rubberized 
material. Other items will doubtless be added and the 
list of products revised from time to time. 

Any book, therefore, which attempts to exhaust this 
subject of rubberized fabric uses would only impose 
a hardship upon the reader, besides being impractical 
for our purpose. We can, therefore, do better by merely 
giving a somewhat general outUne of the various 
classes of materials falhng under the category of rub- 
berized fabrics, explaining briefly the field of each class. 

The product of the Rubberized Fabric Sales Depart- 
ment consists of seven major classes of merchandise. 
These, for the sake of convenience in description, we 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

will list as Motor Top and Curtain Fabrics, Seat 
Covering Fabrics, Balloon Fabric, Shoe Covering and 
Backing Fabrics, Fabrics for Specialty Manufacturers, 
Mill Aprons and Garment Fabrics. 

Motor Top and Curtain Fabrics. The idea of a 
coated fabric for vehicle storm tops is not new. Indeed, 
carriage makers years ago ceased to look upon patent 
leather as their only top material. While it is true that 
automobile makers, especially those of the more expen- 
sive machines, have used considerable leather for tops 
and curtains, it must be apparent that outside its pro- 
hibitive cost, leather must cease to be an economic fac- 
tor in this field. The supply would not fill the demand 
even if the cost were no object. Some substitute for 
leather must, therefore, be furnished and a coated fab- 
ric is the result of this demand. 

By virtue of its 100% water-resistant quality, its 
adaptability to the process of coating, and its all-around 
serviceability, a compound which has rubber as the base 
takes its place in the forefront of auto top fabric coating 
materials. 

As will be readily understood if one stops to consider, 
there is, in addition to the not in considerable yardage 
demand by the automobile manufacturer, also an 
immense yardage required by the local top maker for 
renewal and repair work to automobiles and carriages. 
The sales volume of this material indeed runs into 
attractive totals. 

Goodrich auto-top fabric is a "spread" material, 
which is to say, the coatings are appUed by the spreading 
process. Drills, sheetings, tweeds and whip-cords are 
the fabrics used, and as may be supposed, are selected 
by us to meet the demand of this specid service. 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

But in addition to the usual steps of manufacture 
through which coated fabrics must pass, as described 
in the preceding chapter, auto top and curtain material 
must undergo further treatment. This is to say that 
the use of leather has created a demand for a "boarded" 
or grained surface. The coating must also be varnished 
to enhance its appearance and keep the free sulphur 
from "blooming" out. 

Although these two steps do not increase the quahty 
or durability of the material and are easily explained, 
it must be remembered that upon their perfection 
depends almost entirely the marketability of the product. 
These two steps are accomplished by machinery entirely 
peculiar to this type of rubberized fabric. 

The "boarding" or graining machine is a special 
calender consisting of engraved roUs set in an upright 
framework equipped with suitable driving and feed 
mechanism, the master roll being steel, the others being 
paper. The uncured stock is passed between these 
rolls, the pressure being such as to force the gum into 
the engraving, producing that ridged or bas-rehef effect 
so often seen in bookbinders' or upholsterers' leather. 

From the boarding machine the material passes 
through the varnishing step. This is also accomphshed 
automatically by machinery, the fabric being brought 
into contact with brushes which apply the coating evenly 
over the whole surface. This step is taken directly 
after vulcanization takes place. 

The individuahty and attractiveness of Goodrich 
Auto Top and Curtain Material, by reason of our care- 
ful graining and varnishing processes, have placed us 
in the position of being one of the leading manufacturers 
of such material, in less than a year's time. Evidence 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

that we believe all we claim for this product of our 
Rubberizing Department will be found in the Goodrich 
mark of quality which is branded on the back or under 
side in such a way as to be apparent to the purchasing 
public. 

Balloon Fabrics. Those of us whose first and last 
knowledge of balloons has been gained by watching the 
more or less perilous ascension of Razzle-Dazzle, the 
Aeronaut, at the local county fair, with its attendant 
"hair raising" parachute drop, will recall the gas bag as a 
huge spherical or oblate silk envelope filled with 
kerosene oil smoke which, as the bag reverted after 
the "drop," drifted slowly away in a black smudge. 
These flights were scarcely more than spectacles. To- 
day, however, flying with lighter than air craft is fast 
becoming an exact and exacting science. 

No longer will the porous untreated silk suffice. In 
place of the kerosene oil smoke, the bag is filled with a 
lighter gas such as hydrogen, and a material must be 
used which will retain this "balloon juice" through 
sustained periods of flight covering hours and even 
days. To charge the envelope is a big task, but greater 
still is the task of preventing the escape of this expensive 
gas. A single charge wiU often cost thousands of dollars, 
and is too precious to waste, to say nothing of the 
necessity for the balloon to stay up long periods of time. 

There is scarcely a man, woman or child who is not 
familiar with the record of the "gas-bag" in military 
and naval work. We have all read and re-read of the 
air raids of Zepps, the coast patrol work of Dirigibles 
and the control of gun fire through the use of Captive 
baUoons. 

But there are comparatively few who think of the 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

material from which these gas retaining envelopes are 
made and who realize the utter dependence of the 
modern balloon upon rubber as the air retaining agency. 
Rubberized cloth is a great improvement in balloon 
building. Its impermeability to air and moisture and 
the fact that rubberizing makes possible the use of a 
strong fabric, has made many records possible. 

As mentioned in the historical chapter covering rub- 
berized fabrics, The B. F. Goodrich Company, at the 
beginning of this country's participation in the war, had 
had no experience in balloon building. We knew 
rubber, however, its possibilities and how to work 
with it. Naturally, therefore, the Government turned 
this way for assistance. 

Within ninety days we had installed the necessary 
machinery, organized our forces and started to work. 
Two months after this we dehvered our first perfect 
balloon and this was followed within sixty days, by the 
delivery of twenty-five. In all Goodrich built no less 
than three hundred eighty nine (389) balloons, including 
fourteen dirigibles — Blimp type — three hundred sixty- 
two kite or observation balloons, and thirteen supply 
balloons. 

As might be supposed, the balloon business did not 
die with the signing of the Armistice. The Army and 
Navy continued to use a good many balloons and 
transportation companies began experimenting Avith 
trans-Atlantic and trans-continental air liners. AU of 
this calls for the rubberizing of a great deal of balloon 
fabric and while we are now interested in the balloon 
construction, we do furnish the makers with a consider- 
able quantity of the necessary rubberized material. 

It would, however, be impossible for us to describe, 
with any degree of accuracy, the several types of fabric 

81 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

necessary for the various purposes. Balloon con- 
struction is still in a state of flux, and ideas as to 
what constitutes the right kind of materials are con- 
stantly changing. Suffice it to say that some balloon 
fabrics are of "double texture" and some are of 
"single texture," depending upon service requirements, 
and that all are made to specifications furnished 
us by the builders of balloons. 

In general, however, the rubberizing must be of a 
compound unaff'ected by the gas and of such a nature 
that the coating will withstand extreme fluctuations 
in temperature. The most important of the various 
fabrics used are known as Two-Ply Body Fabric, Two- 
Ply Ballonet Fabric, and One-Ply Stabilizer Fabric. 
Body fabric is the outside covering of the main envelope. 

Dirigibles are not a single envelope but a series of small 
balloons enclosed in the larger envelope. These are 
known as ballonets. Hence the baUonet fabric. Sta- 
bilizers are the planes by which the direction and alti- 
tude of the flight aie controlled. Hence a stabilizer 
fabric. 

AU of these come under the category of spread fabrics, 
and their manufacture may be visualized by reference 
to the description of "spreading" in the preceding chap- 
ter. 

Rubberized Fabrics for Cloth and Leather Shoes. 

Strange as it may seem, rubberized fabrics comprise 
an important item in leather and cloth shoe manu- 
facture, possessing for certain purposes advantages 
which have been demonstrated to a point where they 
are in demand by almost every shoe manufacturer in 
the United States. 

These fabrics are of three classes, two of which we turn 
out and sell in large quantities, known under the trade 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

terms "Shoe Covering Cloth and Shoe Backing Cloth." 
Both are made on a base of light cotton, 37 to 38" in width 
(which, incidentally, is not always the same weave or 
weight) and fall within the category of Single Texture 
Spread Fabrics. They are turned out and sold 
in rolls of approximately one hundred yards each, 

(a) One does not need to possess a knowledge of shoe 
construction to understand why it is that in the manu- 
facture of ladies' fine kid shoes in white, taupe, tan and 
other delicate shades, a protecting cover of some sort 
must be used as the shoe passes through the various 
operations, or why otherwise it must undergo a cleaning 
process afterward. Operators' hands are bound to 
become soiled and there is always more or less dirt and 
grease around machinery, which would soil these deli- 
cate topping leathers sometimes beyond repair. 

Some shoe manufacturers use a paper covering. Some 
manufacturers of white canvas shoes protect them by a 
spraying process. Both these methods, however, while 
low in first cost, are far from economical and seldom 
satisfactory. Paper is easily torn, not impervious to 
machinery grease, and often does not protect the shoe 
as it should. In fact, neither of these measures is, in 
the long run, as economical as the use of a rubberized, 
vulcanized, shoe covering cloth. This last material 
may be used over and over again, is not subject to 
penetration by inks or machinery greases, and if made 
by Goodrich, retains its "life" until worn out. 

These facts are pretty generally recognized by the 
shoe manufacturing trade and there is, therefore, a big 
demand for this item of our rubberizing department. 
Shoe covering cloth is made up by the shoe manufac- 
turer into the form of boots which slide over the upper 
during the process of construction. 

83 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

(b) Shoes with graded uppers are those for which 
topping stock is cut from the choice section of the skin, 
viz., along the center of the back. Ungraded uppers 
are those in which the whole skin is worked up without 
regard to uniformity or grade of leather. Flank pieces 
are not as tough and firm as the backs and the leather 
in this section of a skin is inclined to be more or less 
porous and "stretchy." 

For strengthening soft and stretchy topping leather, 
increasing its weight and thus holding the shoe in shape, 
reinforcement in shoes with cloth tops or for reinforc- 
ing "counters," a rubberized shoe backing cloth has 
become a necessity. As backing for toppings, although 
sometimes used in strips, the general plan is to lay the 
patterns on this material and cut a piece which will 
fit the whole side of the top. This is then assembled 
with the topping leather — rubber coating in — and stuck 
to it by passing the two pieces between heated rollers 
or under a warm iron. As a reinforcement for "coun- 
ters" the rubberizing fabric is "died out" about twenty 
thicknesses at a clip, the pieces to match being sub- 
sequently assembled with and stuck to the counter by 
passing both over heated plates. 

Formerly it was the practice to cut adults shoes from 
the center of the skin, leaving the flank pieces for chil- 
dren's and infants' shoes. Choice skins for shoe manu- 
facturers are, however, no longer available in large 
quantities, and a great deal of flank leathers are there- 
fore necessarily used in adults' shoes. This condition 
creates the demand for an enormous yardage of this 
rubberized Shoe Backing Cloth. 

Calendered Fabrics. Calendered rubberized fabrics 
are always of the rubber surfaced variety and on the 

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For Earth, Sea and Sky 

whole are made up uncured, the completed article being 
afterward vulcanized. This is illustrated by the rubber 
surfaced coat such as worn by firemen or poncho blankets 
and like articles. Because of insurmountable mechanical 
difficulties it is, in most cases, therefore, impractical 
for us to take on business for uncured calendered rubber 
surfaced fabrics. 

There are, however, a great many items classed as 
"Specialties" which are made from a cured calendered 
rubber surfaced fabric, and to the manufacturers of 
these specialties we sell a considerable yardage of this 
material. The base fabrics are usually drills, jeans, 
sheetings and bombazines, although almost any tight- 
ly woven cotton cloth may be rubberized by this process. 

Naturally, calendered fabrics for specialty manu- 
facturers, such as portable bathtub makers, household 
apron manufacturers and the like are made according 
to specifications in order to meet the demands of 
the particular article involved. As for example, bellows 
fabrics for the player piano and pipe organ, which is 
sometimes calendered fabric, must be of a certain weight 
and carry a certain type of rubber coating. 

Sometimes the raw fabrics are supplied by the custom- 
ers, sometimes by ourselves, but always the rubber- 
izing specifications are laid down by the purchaser with 
the order for the work. 

It would be impossible for us to enumerate all special- 
ties which are or may be manufactured from a calendered 
rubberized fabric. It must suffice that we let it go 
with these two or three illustrations, leaving the reader 
to draw upon his imagination for the rest. The field, 
however, is unhmited. There are hundreds of articles 
today being made of oil-cloth on account of its lower 

85 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

price, which might be better made from the more de- 
pendable rubberized material. New things are being 
devised every day, and hardly a week passes by but 
what we are asked to supply the rubberized material 
from which to make them. If the reader be a person of 
imagination he will close his eyes and see the possibilities 
for increasing our business in this item of the Rubberized 
Fabric line and at the same time benefit the ultimate 
purchaser. 

Mill Aprons. Automobile inner tube makers and, 
in fact, all rubber factories where gums are "plied-up" 
or run in other sheeted formation, operate what we 
term as "sheeting calenders." The success of thus 
sheeting rubber compounds depends entirely on keep- 
ing the stock away from itself while warm and fresh 
from the machinery. In other words, to handle calen- 
dered stock most expeditiously it must be rolled up, and 
to keep one lap from sticking against the other some- 
thing must be interwound as the stock comes from the 
calender. For this purpose we manufacture and sell 
a "mill apron" which takes the place of the old 
soapstoned muslin "build-up" hner. 

While the initial outlay is greater, mill aprons are used 
advantageously in place of liners because there is no 
waste caused by the gum sticking while going through 
the machinery or in "stripping" the stock just prior 
to using. Again, rolls of sheeted stock when stood on 
end, as they are, if wound into liners, frequently wrinkle. 

The use of a mill-apron eliminates losses caused by 
creases because they are stiffer than liners and hold the 
stock flat. Where the old type liner is used there is 
always bound to be more or less sticking and wrinkling, 
making it necessary to scrap much stock for rerunning. 

86 




Calendering Fabrics 




One of the Many Uses of Rubberized Fabrics 




spreading Rubberized Fabrics. One of the Largest Spreading 
Departments in Existence 




One Shipment of a Finished Product — If Placed End to End This 

Shipment of Mill Aprons Would Reach From 

Philadelphia to Boston. 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

In savings from the elimination of these objectionable 
features a full complement of mill-aprons has been 
known to pay for itself within four months' time, at 
the end of which they were found to be practically as 
good as new. 

Mill aprons are made from a double texture "spread" 
cotton cloth, known as "back-to-back" material, and 
are supplied in 39 and 40" widths and 50 and 55-yard 
lengths. 

Garment Fabrics. In the manufacture of water- 
proof coats which present a fabric surface outward is 
used a class of coated material which, for the want of a 
better name, is termed "Texture Fabric." This is rub- 
berized by the spreading process and may be of either 
single or double thickness. Garments made of this 
material are, therefore known as either "Single-Textm-e" 
or "Double-Texture" coats. 

Single texture coats are those made from one thick- 
ness of cloth so rubberized that in the completed gar- 
ment the rubber surface is exposed on the inside. No 
other hning is provided except in cases where they are 
made with a loose lining the same as the ordinary tailored 
overcoat. 

Double texture coats are those made from two fabrics, 
rubberized and "doubled" together so that the ply of 
rubber is between the two and invisible. These fabrics 
may be of hke character or entirely different. If 
similar, they are known as "back-to-back" but, on the 
other hand, if a silk hning be imposed to a heavy facing 
they are simply known as "double texture." 

Regardless of this, however, when vulcanized these 
two fabrics become a unit, practically inseparable. 
This year such fabrics as cashmere,^tweeds,vwool novlty 

87 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

cloth, bombazines, Palmer Covert Cloth, moleskin and 
silks are being used. 

As mentioned previously, the waterproof coat is a 
class of merchandise not properly a part of the rubber 
manufacturer's product. It is a line which, because of 
changing styles, does not lend itself well to the organiza- 
tion methods of the big rubber factory where a large 
number of employees must be kept busy the year around, 
turning out volume production. 

Because of this and further because of trade condi- 
tions peculiar to this business, it is therefore best left 
to those who, by virtue of location, organization and 
training, are well equipped to manufacture and market 
such a product. 

While we do not, therefore, concern ourselves with the 
manufacture of the coats, as rubberizers we do, however, 
apply the coating "double" and vulcanize a big yardage 
of this material for the trade. We receive the fabrics 
from the mill on the account of the raincoat maker who 
supplies us with his specifications and instructions for 
coating. These instructions cover such detail as which 
linings to use on the various outer fabrics and color of 
compounds to run on the single texture fabrics, etc. 

Seat Covering Fabric. One's character is often 
judged by his personal appearance. It matters not 
whether the man be rich, moderately well off or com- 
paratively poor, he is either well-groomed or carelessly 
dressed. 

So it is with the interior of the automobile, and it 
matters not whether it be a "flivver" or a "bear-cat." 
A study of the machines on the streets of any city 
reveals a striking contrast. There is the shabby car and 

88 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

the one which presents a truly handsome aspect through 
the use of a well-tailored seat covering material. 

One of the most annoying features of the automobile 
is the tendency of dust and dirt to accumulate on the 
cushions. It gathers in the tufts and folds and every 
jolt drives just a little more dirt into the clothing of the 
occupant. Dust and grime apparently ooze from leather 
and cannot be washed out, and from the seats of cars 
upholstered with imitation leather the coloring matter 
sometimes wears off and stains a light colored garment. 

These things, together with the fact that the glossy 
leather cushion is hot and uncomfortable in summer, 
and cold and disagreeable in winter, are objections to the 
use of leather and imitation leather. They are, however, 
objections easily overcome by the use of a seat cover 
constructed from a good rubberized covering material. 

Covers made from these fabrics, when properly 
tailored, make the flat wornout cushion look even more 
attractive than when new. They give the new car that 
complete well-appointed appearance and give the used 
car an up-to-date snappy newness. The Goodrich 
line of seat covering materials consists of two numbers 
and belongs to that class of rubberized fabrics manu- 
factured by the spreading process. They may be either 
single or double texture as required. The base fabrics 
generally used are known as serges, cashmeres, mohairs, 
whipcords, hnens, drills and sheetings. 

Quality Counts. So popular has become the quality 
standard of Goodrich rubberized fabrics that many of 
our customers in marketing their finished product find 
the sale more easily made when they reveal to the 
prospective purchaser the fact that the rubberizing was 
done in the Goodrich factory. 

89 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

This is only another instance which proves the ad- 
vantage of quality, strengthening our position as advo- 
cates of "quality first always." No formulas except 
those which will provide a positive and permanent 
adhesion, giving a proofing to the material which will 
perform its mission satisfactorily under every reason- 
able service demand, are made use of. 




90 



CHAPTER NINE 

Marketing Rubberized Fabrics 

Distribution. It scarcely seems necessary that we 
recall the cause which prompted the officers of this 
company to inaugurate a world-wide method of dis- 
tribution of products by the establishment of the first 
branches at New York, Boston and Chicago during 
the year 1898. It is clearly obvious that any manu- 
facturing company which becomes a national factor 
must adopt methods of merchandising which will bring 
its factory close to its trade. 

The district warehouse and local branch system, as 
operated by ourselves and others whereby stock ware- 
houses are situated in the various merchandising cen- 
ters of the country, serving through loccd branches 
located at important cities surrounding, is the natural 
result of a nationalized and inter-nationalized business. 
Need we mention that the system of branch distribution 
operates to the mutual advantage of producer, dealer 
and consumer. In fact, the dealer and the jobber hnks 
in distribution of standard items of rubber goods, such 
as tires, footwear and certain mechanical items, could 
scarcely be served efficiently in any other way. 

Reahzing this, the question therefore will quite 
naturally occur to many as to why this method is not 
also utilized in the marketing of our Rubberized Fabric 
product. It is, however, a foregone conclusion that the 
warehouse and branch distribution scheme is not always 

91 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

the most effective, and the answer to this quite natural 
question is, briefly, that trade conditions and channels 
of distribution are such that the interests of our custo- 
mers are best served in another way. In other words, 
the nature of the line is such that the product of the 
Rubberized Fabric Department is best marketed from 
Akron direct; as for example, the problems confront- 
ing us in rubberizing fabrics for the garment maker are 
simplified by eliminating the branch from the transaction. 

This does not mean that our branch organization is 
relieved of all responsibility in the sale of these items. 
As a matter of fact, the support and co-operation of our 
field forces is essential to the success of our sales to give 
this line the widest popularity. To this end every 
branch employee should possess a fundamental 
knowledge of this product and of our selling plans. 
Without this knowledge one cannot intelligently answer 
questions put by potential interested prospects. 

It is the desire of the Akron Sales Department to keep 
the branch organization supplied with literature descrip- 
tive of its line, and it is to be hoped that every employee 
will so familiarize himself with this important division of 
our product that he can give the needed co-operation. 

In some instances where tangible direct assistance may 
be given, swatch-books and prices covering some divisions 
of the line will be supplied. As for example, this is 
true of the Boston Branch in connection with shoe 
fabrics. Boston and its contiguous territory is known 
as the "Center of the shoe trade." It is here that the 
biggest market for our shoe fabrics should naturally be 
found. Knowing that The B. F. Goodrich Company 
maintains a local branch, the shoe trade is bound to 
make inquiries of our Boston organization concerning 

92 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

shoe fabrics. This same condition might be true of 
other rubberized fabrics in other territories. 

The Trade. In the preceding chapter it has been 
necessary in describing the product to define rather 
carefully the trade which we serve. We can, therefore, 
do little more than repeat, in condensed form, what has 
previously been told. 

It is, however, impossible for us to give a classified 
list of our customers since many of the items have 
several avenues of escape. For example, calendered 
fabrics are sold to specialty manufacturers. Specialty 
manufacturers might be anyone from a manufacturer 
of ordnance to a manufacturer of advertising novelties. 
Our list of customers is continually increasing and we 
cannot tell today what demands will be made tomorrow 
for this class of rubberized fabric. Likewise auto top 
and curtain fabrics are sold to different classes of cus- 
tomers. 

Generally speaking, however, the Rubberized Fabric 
product finds its outlet through the Automobile and 
kindred trades, through Balloon Manufacturers, Shoe 
Manufacturers, Rubber Goods Manufacturers, Gar- 
ment Manufacturers and Manufacturers of Special 
Items. 

Guarantee. All rubberized fabrics which leave the 
Goodrich factory, whether under the Goodrich name 
and trade mark or otherwise, are guaranteed free from de- 
fects in material and workmanship insofar as we are re- 
sponsible. In other words, if a fabric is purchased, rub- 
berized and sold by the Goodrich Company as a complete 
product, we are responsible for any defect in the weaving 
or finishing of the base fabric itself and in the rubber 
coating. On the other hand, we have nothing what 

93 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

ever to do with the selection of fabrics sent to us by 
others for rubberizing, and can only guarantee, that the 
coating has been done with our high standards of work- 
manship and materials. 

When it becomes necessary for us to make adjust- 
ment we do so only on the basis of defects in material 
and workmanship and do not take into account any 
portion of service rendered by the article. 

Care of Rubberized Fabrics. All fabrics treated 
with rubber compounds must be kept away from oil 
and grease since such are active agents destructive to 
rubber. When not in use, items made of rubberized 
fabrics should be stored in a cool, dry and dark place. 
If carelessly piled up when wet or placed near steam 
pipes, radiators or stoves, the mildew or excessive heat, 
as the case may be, will cause the rubber to dry out, 
rot, and eventually crumble away from the fabric. 

The process of vulcanization once set up continues 
under the influence of frictional heat, heat of the sun, 
or heat artificially applied. Although the employment 
of scientific knowledge in rubber compounding tends 
to retard this action, careless treatment will accelerate 
over vulcanization even if evidence of disintegration 
does not appear at once. 




94 



Review 2uestions 

CHAPTER ONE 

1. What can be said of rubber footwear in its relation 
to other rubber products? 

2. Of what did the first American trade in rubber 
footwear consist? 

3. Were the first rubber shoes practical from a service 
standpoint? If not, why not? 

4. What effect did Charles Goodyear's discovery 
have upon the rubber footwear business? 

5. To whom were the first licenses for the manu- 
facture of such issued? 

6. When and under what circumstances did The B. F. 
Goodrich Company enter the rubber footwear 
field as manufacturers? 

7. When and under what circumstances did we enter 
this field as manufacturers and sellers of a complete 
line? 

8. What can be said of the manufacturing processes 
up to the time of the introduction of "Hi-press?" 

9. What effect upon the trade at large did this proc- 
ess improvement have? 

CHAPTER TWO 

1. What is a "last"? 

2. How do rubber footwear "lasts" differ from "lasts" 
used in the manufacture of leather footwear? 

95 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

3. Of what practical purpose are fabrics in the manu- 
facture of rubber footwear? 

4. Do fabrics have other uses in the manufacture of 
footwear? 

5. How do we select such materials? 

6. How do we prepare footwear fabrics? 

7. What can be said of the effect of the "Hi-press" 
process on the quality of the compounds used? 

8. What does color mean in a rubber footwear com- 
pound? 

9. Of what may color be the result? 

10. What method is usually followed in the cutting of 
footwear stocks? 

11. What building method is in vogue at the present? 

12. What is meant by "half-lasting"? 

13. What is the vamp in a rubber shoe? 

14. What two practical methods of vulcanization are 
now in vogue? 

15. What can be said of the Dry Heat Curing process, 
as to its merits? 

16. What is the mechanical method of cure? 

17. What effect does the latter have upon the rubber 
stocks? 

18. What important step is taken before Goodrich 
rubber footwear is boxed for shipment? 

CHAPTER THREE 

1. Of what must a well-balanced line of light weight 
wear consist? 

2. Of what must a well-balanced line of heavy weight 
wear consist? 

96 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

3. What comes under the "Hi-press" brand? 

4. What comes under the Straight-Line brand? 

5. What do we mean by styles, widths, and sizes? 

6. How must the hght weight hue be designed? 

CHAPTER FOUR 

1. What can be said of the effect of too much heat or 
too much hght on the hfe of rubber footwear? 

2. Explain as you would to a customer the effect upon 
a rubber boot brought about by drying in an oven. 

3. How would you provide for the storage of your 
rubber footwear stock if engaged in the retail 
shoe business? 

4. Where should rubber shoe storage space be located 
in relation to heating appliances? 

5. What can be said of the effect of oil, etc., upon the 
life of rubber boots and shoes? 

6. Of what importance to service is the proper fitting 
of rubber footwear? 

7. Of what importance is a careful consideration of 
the subject of the care of rubber shoes and boots? 

CHAPTER FIVE 

1. How do we market footwear? 

2. What class of trade do we solicit? 

3. How are Goodrich rubber boots and shoes guaran- 
teed? 

CHAPTER SIX 

1. Name some of the methods that have been used 
in the attempt to waterproof fabrics. 

97 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

2. What effect did most of these methods have? 

3. What constitutes a waterproof fabric? 

4. What is the probable origin of rubberized fabrics? 

5. What circumstance is connected with its discovery 
by the White Race? 

6. What can be said of the first rubberized fabrics 
used by the white people? 

7. Were they popular, and if so why? 

8. Why did rubberized fabrics fall into disfavor? 

9. What discovery started the commercial develop- 
ment of rubberized fabrics? 

10. What discovery saved the rubberized fabric in- 
dustry from extinction? 

11. Who was responsible for this discovery? 

12. What political events stimulated the waterproof 
fabric industry to greater activity? 

13. What circumstance prompted The B. F. Goodrich 
Company to begin the production of rubberized 
fabrics in large quantities? 

CHAPTER SEVEN 

1. Why are so few people really informed on the 
question of fabrics? 

2. What governs the naming of fabrics for rubberizing 
purposes? 

3. What should govern the selection of such materials? 

4. Under what two general classifications do all 
fabrics rubberized by Goodrich come? 

5. What precautions must be taken in the selection 
of fabrics intended for rubberizing? 

98 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

6. Why is the question of dyes so important to the 
rubberizer and purchaser of rubberized fabrics? 

7. How are compounds for use in coating fabrics 
treated? 

8. What are the two principal methods of rubberizing? 

9. What class of fabrics do we rubberize by the 
spreader? 

10. What class of fabrics do we rubberize by the 
calender? 

11. Does thickness of coating determine the quality of 
the rubberizing? 

12. What is meant by "doubling"? 

13. What constitutes a correct cure for this class of 
materials? 

CHAPTER EIGHT 

1. Why are rubberized fabrics growing in popularity? 

2. Name three other materials which they may re- 
place with economy. 

3. What can you say of the future possibilities for 
Auto Top and Curtain Fabric? 

4. Why is rubberized fabric a superior material for 
this purpose? 

5. Is Auto Top Fabric a calendered or a spread 
material? 

6. What two additional steps must Auto Top Fabric 
pass through not usual in the production of other 
rubberized fabrics? 

7. Why are Auto Top fabrics "boarded"? 

8. Why is a rubberized fabric a superior material 
for balloon construction? 

99 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

9. What circumstances prompted us to add balloon 
fabrics to our list of products? 

10. Are balloon fabrics a spread or calendered prop- 
osition? 

11. Name three types of balloon fabrics and explain 
their uses? 

12. Why has a rubberized fabric become a necessity 
to the cloth and leather shoe trade? 

13. Where are rubberized fabrics used in the con- 
struction of cloth and leather shoes? 

14. What is a shoe covering cloth? 

15. What is a shoe backing cloth? 

16. By what classes of trade are calendered fabrics 
generally used? 

17. To what class of trade do we furnish cured calen- 
dered fabrics? 

18. What is a mill apron? Explain its use and ad- 
vantages. 

19. What is a single texture fabric? 

20. What is a double texture fabric? 

21. Where are texture fabrics used? 

22. Why do not we manufacture rubberized water- 
proof coats? 

23. How are we concerned in this business? 

24. What is a seat-covering fabric? 

25. Explain the advantages derived from the use of 
rubberized seat covering material. 

26. Are seat covering fabrics manufactured by the 
calendered or spreading process? 

27. What can be said of Goodrich Rubberized Fabrics 
in general? 

100 



For Earth, Sea and Sky 

CHAPTER NINE 

1. How are Goodrich rubberized fabrics marketed? 

2. How can the branches assist in marketing this 
division of the Goodrich product. 

3. Classify roughly the purchasers of Goodrich rub- 
berized fabrics? 

4. What guarantee do we place on the product of 
our Rubberized Fabric Department? 

5. What constitutes abuse of articles made from 
rubberized fabrics? 




101 



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